**1. Introduction**

Closely tied to the development of modernist literature is the growing urbanisation and new lifestyles in metropolitan areas. Modernist classics, like James Joyce's *Ulysses* (Joyce [1924] 1972) and Virginia Woolf's *Mrs. Dalloway* (Woolf [1925] 2000), are interpretations of human life in a city characterised by rapid expansion and technological innovations. Commonly, modernist literature is seen as a response to the dual aspects of modernity, exploring on the one hand its promising industrial achievements and on the other its more shadowy effects of alienation and rootlessness. However, as Rita Felski and Deborah L. Parsons, among others, have pointed out, the modern urban space and its modernist representations are not least permeated with gendered and sexualised tensions and

conflicts.<sup>1</sup> While patriarchal patterns of domination prevail and cause difficulties and limitations mostly to women but also to men, modernity implies that new opportunities for a more autonomous life occur—but not seldom at a high cost.

In this essay, I want to discuss the combination of city life and gender performativity in two Norwegian classics, Knut Hamsun's *Hunger* (1890) and Cora Sandel's *Alberta and Freedom* (1931) (Sandel [1963] 1984). These are modernist novels depicting lonely human subjects in an urban space, the first one featuring a man in Kristiania (now Oslo) in the 1880s, the second one a woman and her male and female acquaintances in Paris in the 1920s. By gender performativity I understand a way of constructing gender by means of body, appearance, acts and speech, which can be analysed with combined attention to characters, narrators and rhetoric.<sup>2</sup> My aim is to interpret and compare the two novels by focusing on their intertwined construction of gender performativity and urban space. As I will show, gender norms of the city life are critical premises for how the subjects manage to negotiate with different options and obstacles through their modern existences.

*Hunger* and *Alberta and Freedom* have both inspired a considerable number of readings. Hamsun's novel has been foregrounded as an innovative text of early European modernism and stands out as a classic reference. Main contributions to the discussion of the novel's position as an important breakthrough of modernism are the works by Peter Kirkegaard (1975) and Martin Humpál (1998). They both foreground the novel's protagonist as a lonely, rootless subject in urban life as well as its experimental narrative form. However, while Kirkegaard adopts an ideologically focused approach, Humpál emphasises the novel's narrative techniques.

The novel has, moreover, been repeatedly discussed in the wake of what Hamsun himself saw as a contribution to a new psychological literature. In a manifest-like essay from 1890, "From the Unconscious Life of the Human Mind" (Hamsun 1994b) ["Fra det ubevidste sjæleliv", (Hamsun 1994a)], Hamsun argues in favour of a psychological literature concerned with mental life, as well as with the relationship between creativity and the unconscious. This intentional focus on hidden impulses and drives has inspired psychoanalytical readings, most prominently by Atle Kittang, who in a major study (1984) and other essays underscores the connection between Hamsun's modernity and his psychological writings: "Here, in this astonishing correspondence between the novelist's investigations into the deep conflicts of subjective and inter-subjective existence, and the future revolutions in psychology, lies perhaps the real modernity of Hamsun's early (and even later) works".<sup>3</sup>

Contrary to this psychological approach, other examinations have instead pointed out how the novel focuses on the subject's projections and observations of external phenomena. Within this way of reading, *Hunger* has been interpreted as an anti-psychological text, for instance by Knut Brynhildsvoll (1998). Its body focus has, furthermore, been underscored by Per Mæleng (1994), who reads the hero's neurosis as bulimia and discloses a textual structure that mirrors the bulimic's rhythm of eating and vomiting. In an extended analysis of its body phenomenology, Hamsun's depiction of the protagonist's gendered and sexualised behaviour has been discussed by Langås (2004).

Cora Sandel's trilogy on Alberta—*Alberta and Jacob* [*Alberte og Jakob*, (Sandel 1926)], *Alberta and Freedom* [*Alberte og friheten*, (Sandel [1931] 1976)], *Alberta Alone* [*Bare Alberte*, (Sandel 1939)]—has attracted several academic readings. Most relevant to mention here are interpretations of the walking and city motif in *Alberta and Freedom*, which portrays the female protagonist and her life in Paris. In her book on "literary vagabonds" [litterære vaganter], Selboe (2003) explores texts by female authors, who place their heroines strolling around in the metropolis, while being visible and invisible at the

.

<sup>1</sup> *The Gender of Modernity* (Felski 1995); *Streetwalking the Metropolis* (Parsons 2000) 

<sup>2</sup> The concept of 'gender performativity' is developed in several works by Judith Butler, see *Gender Trouble* (Butler [1990] 1999), and *Bodies that Matter* (Butler 1993). Butler's perspective is to theorise about gender in a general sense, while my approach is concerned with the way in which literary texts take part in the cultural construction of gender.

<sup>3</sup> Knut Hamsun's *Sult* (Hamsun 1890, p. 301) .

same time.<sup>4</sup> Her aim in the Sandel chapter is to show how the city surroundings are integrated motifs in a story of artistic creativity, and also how Alberta's walking is a physical activity that echoes her childhood in a small town in northern Norway. Sensing and perceiving the streets of Paris, night and day, means to create a literary place by means of combined impulses from the memorised past and the experienced present.

In addition, Arne Melberg foregrounds Alberta's walking in his book on traveling and writing (2005). He sees the restless and aimless way of moving around in the city landscape as an essential part of the novel's modernism and observes how its female protagonist, in contrast to her male acquaintances, has no plans and no projects. Curiously, the walking activity is a kind of passivity, he maintains, since it takes part in an existential being-in-the-world which has no declared goal. However, precisely in the tension between dynamism and pause, Melberg finds the poetic imagery that allows Sandel's text to prefigure its important creative writing theme. Paulson (2005) adopts a phenomenological approach to the representation of the city and underscores the image of Paris in Alberta's perception as a magic place.

More concerned with the vulnerable body, Rees (2010) takes the penetration motif as a guiding perspective throughout her analysis of the novel. Literally and metaphorically, the penetration takes place in different ways, she argues, and sorts out its strata in 'architectural penetration', 'artistic penetration', 'sexual penetration', and 'narrative penetration'. The first includes the many scenes where Alberta, but also other women, stay in rooms with a penetrable quality "that relates to the marginalized and transitory status of the people who occupy them".<sup>5</sup> The second includes several passages where the border between text and image is blurred, predominantly in ekphrasis. These descriptions often tend to function as projections of the gendered conflicts at the novel's discourse level. The third includes sexual relationships, depicted primarily by means of rhetorical substitutions and the gaze, but not least the more explicitly told abortion story of Liesel, Alberta's closest friend. The fourth includes narrative interruptions by memories that subvert epic chronology and permit spatial readings, most notably the novel's most extended flashback, which depicts the death of Alberta's parents.

My comparative reading of the two novels will focus on the gendered identities and relations as they are shaped in a setting of modern urban space and produced by cultural norms. Both novels feature a lonely person without strong social ties, but their different sex causes them to face diverse and, to an extent, opposite challenges. I will show how the two protagonists respond to this situation, and how the modern urban space from this point of view becomes a tempered battleground for gendered controversies.
