2.2.3. Sociodemographic Variables

Information on the sociodemographic profiles of the respondents was obtained from data collected by the interviewer and from the questionnaire. The sociodemographic questions were answered by 2000 people. Their average age was 45.61 years (SD = 18.456, minimum = 18, maximum = 94). Table 1 presents the sociodemographic descriptive statistics.


**Table 1.** Descriptive statistics for the sociodemographic variables for the test group (*n* = 2000).

Note: PLN—Polish zloty; 1€ ≈ 4.3 PLN.

#### *2.3. Data Analysis*

All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS version 24 software [49]. We used methods and statistics appropriate to the types of measurement scale and the specific parameters applied. Categorical data are presented as frequencies and percentages, and group comparisons were made using the χ2-test. We used logistic regression (enter method and simple contras, with the reference category first) to identify the variables that best predict involvement in e-gambling.

### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. Popularity of Gambling and Types of Games*

The results obtained indicate that 83 (4.1%; 95% CI (3.3%, 5.1%)) of the 2000 respondents surveyed in the last 12 months have made monetary bets using online gambling services. Most respondents played Totalizator Sportowy lotteries, online sports betting, sports betting concerning e-sport or virtual sport, and online card games for money. Online slot and gambling machines and online betting on the financial markets were used least frequently. None of the respondents indicated using online arcade games for money (Table 2).


**Table 2.** Prevalence of forms of online gambling (*N* = 2000).

Note: 95% CILL: 95% confidence interval lower limit; 95% CIUL: 95% confidence interval upper limit.

#### *3.2. Sociodemographic Variables Associated with Online Gambling*

Logistic regression was used to assess the factors associated with involvement in online gambling (cf. Table 3). The dependent variable had two categories (1—gambling versus 0—not using online gambling services in the last twelve months). Age, gender, population of the place of residence, education, income level, having children, and frequency of Internet use were considered as independent variables. The factors that significantly explained involvement in online gambling were: gender, age, population of the place of residence, education, and monthly family income. Men were more likely to be involved in gambling activities than women. In terms of age, the youngest group (up to age 29) was significantly more likely to be involved in online gambling than older people (over 50). Analysing the size of the place of residence, people living in the countryside were significantly different from those living in towns with 20,000–100,000 residents and those coming from cities of 200,000–500,000 residents. Online gambling activity was much less frequent among people living in towns or cities compared to people living in the countryside. Higher online gambling activity could also be seen among people with primary education compared to those with vocational education. Monthly income was also an important factor explaining involvement in online gambling. People with low monthly incomes were much more likely to devote their time to online gambling than those earning more than PLN 3000. Frequency of Internet use was also an element co-existing with online gambling activity. Individuals using the Internet more frequently were also inclined to become more involved in online gambling.


**Table 3.** An explanatory model of e-gambling (*n* = 2000).

Note: Overall model evaluation: Likelihood ratio test: χ2(21) = 167.916; *p* < 0.001; Cox and Snell R<sup>2</sup> = 0.081; Nagelkerke's R<sup>2</sup> = 0.276.

#### *3.3. Prevalence of Problem Gambling among Players and Related Factors*

Out of the 83 people who participated in online gambling, 22 (26.8%; 95% CI (17.9%, 36.7%)) were at risk of becoming problem gamblers. This group consisted of respondents who provided at least one affirmative answer on the BBGS scale. In order to determine the characteristics of problem online gamblers, we compared them to non-problematic gamblers in respect of sociodemographic variables using the chi-square test (cf. Table 4).

A comparison between gamblers at risk of becoming problem gamblers and those who were not at such risk indicated several differentiating variables (cf. Table 4). These included having children and choice of online e-gambling services. Individuals who manifested symptoms of problem use of e-gambling more frequently had children than those with no symptoms of problem gambling. PeGs were also less active in playing Totalizator Sportowy lotteries and more often used online sports betting (including fantasy sports) and online scratch cards.


**Table 4.** Comparison of sociodemographic variables between non-problem online gamblers (NPeG, *n* = 61) and problem online gamblers (PeG, *n* = 22).

Note: PeG—problem online gamblers; NPeG—non-problem online gamblers.

#### **4. Discussion**

The results of our study allowed us to determine the extent of the involvement of adult Poles in online gambling. First, it is worth mentioning that the first legitimate online gambling games in Poland were sports betting services, first organised in 2012. The provision of other online gambling services was regulated only by the 2016 Act, under which the provision of other online games is subject to a state monopoly [42]. It should be noted that, in practice, these games were made available on the market only in December 2018, which highlights the specificity of the e-gambling market in Poland and sheds light on the results of this study, which was conducted in December 2018. The lotteries organised by Totalizator Sportowy proved to be the most popular online and offline gambling games, having been the most common type of such games for Poles [50]. It is worth noting here that these games, covered by the state monopoly, may be advertised in public media, which significantly increases their potential accessibility compared to other types of gambling games, the advertising of which is prohibited by law. The second most popular games included sports betting and betting related to e-sports and virtual sports, the popularity of which may be explained by the relatively long history of this type of online gambling in Poland. The popularity of gambling reflects, to a large extent, the cultural specificity or legal regulations of a given country concerning the availability of games. For example, the most popular online gambling game in France is, among others, horse race betting, which illustrates the long-standing tradition of what is considered to be a national sport in France [51]. In Poland, football plays a similar role. The relatively high interest of Poles in e-sports or online virtual sports betting is a new trend. This phenomenon has not yet been assessed, so it is difficult to estimate the extent to which there is an upward trend or whether the behaviour has been long-standing. Taking into account the novelty of the phenomenon of e-sports betting, not only in Poland but also worldwide (e.g., this phenomenon was included in the national survey "e-Games France 2017" for the first time only in 2017), an upward trend may be expected [51]. The interest of Poles in such betting even exceeds the popularity of online card games, which is fourth in terms of popularity. The interest in online gambling as a whole seems to be low in Poland. During the 12-month period prior to the survey, 4.1% of adult Poles made an online bet, which is a very small percentage compared to the 37.1% of Poles engaged in offline gambling during the same period [48]. It is worth mentioning that, in the latest epidemiological study on behavioural addictions in Poland, only 1.2% of Poles declared that they had gambled online in the past year. However, it is also significant that, in this study, the category of online gambling was only one among nine categories of offline gambling.

Due to the fact that this was the first study on e-gambling in Poland, we were interested in determining which individuals choose this form of entertainment most often. The results showed that e-gambling was more popular with men than women, and that interest decreases with age. These data are confirmed by studies conducted in other countries [26,37]. Additionally, online gambling was more popular among those with incomes lower than the national average salary than those with incomes equal to or higher than the national average wage. Involvement in online gambling also decreased with the decline in daily Internet use. This phenomenon was all the more alarming because, in light of the Effertz study, the risk of problem online gambling is largest among highly engaged Internet users [22], which was confirmed by the research of Rémond and Romo [52]. The results obtained are in line with other studies, which show that the popularity of online gambling in the West is attributable, among other things, to low access costs—the gambler does not need to travel to the place where the game is played or devote time to such travel [12]. This makes online gambling more accessible from an economic point of view, and therefore more likely to be selected by people with lower socioeconomic status. Other researchers have also emphasised that accessibility and availability are the factors contributing to increased involvement in online gambling [25–29].

Finally, we were interested in the extent to which problem gambling was exacerbated among online gamblers. The study results showed that 26.8% of gamblers had symptoms indicating a probable gambling addiction on the basis of the BBGS scale. These results reveal that the risk of gambling addiction is higher among Polish online gamblers than among gamblers in general (both online and offline). In light of the latest results of a national survey conducted by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS: Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej) on behavioural addictions, 7.7% of all gamblers show a low addiction risk, 0.9% of them a moderate risk level and 0.9% of gamblers are problem gamblers, making a total of 9.5% of gamblers at risk of addiction [53]. It should be mentioned, however, that the CBOS survey was conducted using the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) scale.

Relating the results obtained in our study to other studies, a convergence may be observed. International online gambling studies have showed, for instance, that 14% of gamblers met the criteria for problem gambling in accordance with the Problem Gambling Severity Index, 29% met the criteria for risky gambling and 32.7% of gamblers met the criteria for problem gambling at a low level. Other studies also confirm greater exacerbation of problem gambling among online than offline gamblers [16,19,20], which is, according to some, even three to five times greater [21]. In Austrian studies, 31% of online gamblers showed symptoms of problem gambling, while 18% of offline gamblers displayed such symptoms in accordance with Lie-Bet questionnaire results [54].

The last aspect we analysed included sociodemographic variables coexisting with gambling addiction.

The first important factors differentiating gamblers at risk of a gambling disorder from non-problem gamblers were male gender and age from 40 to 49 years old. These results are surprising because Poles addicted to offline gambling are mainly younger people (18–24 years old) [53]. Nevertheless, the results obtained by us are consistent with the Austrian research of Yazdi and Katzian, in the light of which addicted online gamblers most often belong to the age range 30–49 years [54]. It seems that due to the relatively short period of online gambling being available in Poland, these games are mainly used by mature men who have longer experience with offline gambling, and are, therefore, consciously looking for a new offer of already known entertainment.

The level of education also differentiated problem and non-problem gamblers. Problem e-gamblers more often have primary education, which is also the case with offline gamblers in Poland.

The next important factor differentiating gamblers at risk of a gambling disorder from non-problem gamblers was the presence of children in the household. Gamblers at risk constituted a group that more often had children than representatives of the non-addicted group. This may be due to the higher age of problem e-gamblers. At this stage of study, we are still considering how to understand this relationship. It may be argued that people who are interested in gambling—and have children—have been more inclined to opt for online games which are more accessible due to time constraints. As studies confirm the stronger addictive potential of online gambling, this activity is, thus, more likely to turn into addiction. It can also be assumed that gamblers who do not have children gamble offline as well, but also opt for alternative, non-addictive offline entertainment, which is less accessible to those with children. Online gambling is more absorbing, allowing the gambler to play several games at once, as emphasised by both Cotte et al. and Gainsbury et al. [30,31]. The structural characteristics of online games—such as directness, accessibility, ease of betting, and the fact that they pose a particular risk of addiction—are also highlighted by Chóliz [24].

Accessibility factors are also revealed when linking residence to problem gambling. In light of the results, problem e-gamblers come, more often, from the countryside. Despite the fact that rural residents do not gamble online more often than urban residents, they develop problem e-gambling more often. It can be assumed that these people, with limited possibilities of enjoying other entertainment (including offline gambling), engage in e-gambling more intensively, which translates into an increased risk of developing addiction to these games.

Another factor significantly co-existing with the risk of gambling addiction was the type of game being played. In light of the results, gamblers at risk of addiction are more often involved in sports betting (including "fantasy sports"). These results correlate with McCormack's study, which showed that the risk of problem online gambling is significantly higher for, among others, online sports betting gamblers [23]. Given that sports betting is one of the most popular online gambling services in Poland, this is an important discovery. Problem e-gamblers are also more often involved in online scratch cards, which are one the most popular offline gambling game types in Poland [53].

Summarising the results of the study, it is worth once again referring to the Polish legal regulations on gambling. When the study was conducted, legitimate gambling, apart from sports betting, was in its early stages. It would be significant to monitor the development of Poles' involvement in online gambling as it becomes more widespread. Taking into account the relatively low involvement of Poles in online gambling, it may be assumed that the results obtained stem from the fact that these games were not yet very popular at the time the study was conducted. For instance, Chóliz [24] analysed the changes that occurred between 2012 (when online gambling was legalised in Spain) and the turn of 2014/2015, during which period the number of people who started treatment for pathological gambling quadrupled. Additionally, patients indicated online gambling as the main source of their problems nearly ten times more often in 2014/2015 than in 2012. With this in mind, it is extremely important to continue epidemiological studies on participation in online gambling and problem gambling to develop recommendations for legislators based on changes in the behaviour of gamblers resulting from the implementation of legal amendments. Legalisation of online gambling is a very important issue. Researchers note that the use of legitimate gambling sites causes less gambling-related harm than the use of illegal sites [40]. However, the legalisation of online gambling alone cannot be the only preventive factor. Its effects should be monitored and the next steps need to be adapted accordingly. It would be worthwhile to conduct future studies on the relationship between multi-gambling and gambling problems, especially as researchers have pointed out a research deficit in this area [23]. It would also be important to highlight the differences between "pure" online gamblers, "pure" offline gamblers, and "mixed-mode" gamblers. It is also significant to recognise the differences between the genders in terms of online gambling activities. As the online gambling market in Poland is constantly evolving, it is important to use the experience of Western countries when implementing responsible gambling policy. Internet gamblers should be informed by operators about the risks of gambling. In addition, it would be important for operators to monitor online gambler behaviour and identify at risk gamblers and direct messages to them about threats and the possibilities of seeking help. Gamblers should be able to exclude themselves from the site for a certain period of time, and this should also be offered to at risk gamblers. Some activities in this area are already being implemented; however, it is important to conduct research on the effectiveness of preventive measures taken, because cultural factors can modify it.

#### *Limitations*

Despite the pioneering character of this study in Poland, this study also has its limitations. The first one is the BBGS, the research tool used, which, despite its psychometric properties, only has a screening character and is used relatively rarely in epidemiological studies. Earlier studies on offline gambling in Poland employed a different scale (CPGI), so it is difficult to compare those results with the results of the present study. The BBGS was used due to the preliminary nature of this study, the continuation of which is being planned. Besides, the adjustment of BBGS to online gambling by rewording the questions, being our attempt to remedy to the lack of distinction between online and offline forms of gambling, is a very unusual technique, and it is uncertain how that step affected the results obtained. The next limitation was the restricted number of questions in the survey and the resulting failure to include more variables, including psychological ones. A more elaborate study is, however, currently underway. There were also no questions about offline gambling in the survey, which makes it impossible to determine whether the outspoken gamblers are "pure" online gamblers. In light of the study by Gainsbury, there are differences between pure online and offline gamblers and "mixed-mode" gamblers [18]. Another limitation of research is the fact that it was conducted in the same month in which the online gambling market was expanded. The result of this may have been that the study only captured gamblers very advanced in using new technologies who were the first to reach games in a new form. This confirms the connection between the use of online gambling games and the intensity of Internet involvement. Another hypothesis may be that the research revealed players looking for new types of gambling. This hypothesis, however, is partly undermined by the results of studies in the light of which most Poles practiced Lottery of Sports Totalizator and online sports betting. Lotteries are the most popular offline games in Poland; they are widely recognized and their

publicity is allowed, which translates into their high availability, and therefore—greater involvement of Poles in them. On the other hand, online sports betting has been available in Poland since 2012, which is why it is not a "new" type of game. Research should certainly be continued to learn more about the specifics of Poles' involvement in online gambling.

### **5. Conclusions**

This study provided a characterisation of Poles' involvement in online gambling. This is all the more relevant because in December 2018 new types of online gambling services were introduced. We thus managed to capture the 'initial' state—that is, the very beginning of the new reality of online gambling in Poland. As a result, it is possible to observe changes arising from the introduction of new legal regulations. Studies have shown that 4.1% of Poles made an online bet in the 12-monthnperiod prior to the survey. Lotteries, sports and e-sports betting proved to be the most popular online gambling games. Online gambling was more popular among younger men, with incomes lower than the national average salary, who were highly engaged Internet users. Among all gamblers, 26.8% were reported to be at risk of gambling addiction based on the results of the BBGS screening questionnaire. Addicted online gamblers more often had children and preferred sports betting.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, B.L.-K. and R.P.B.; methodology, B.L.-K., R.P.B., M.W., and J.C.; validation, B.L.-K. and R.P.B.; formal analysis, R.P.B. and M.W.; investigation, B.L.-K., J.C., M.W., and R.P.B.; resources, B.L.-K., J.C., and R.P.B.; data curation, R.P.B. and M.W.; writing—original draft preparation, B.L.-K., M.W., R.P.B.; writing—review and editing, B.L.-K., R.P.B., J.C., M.W., and I.N.; visualization, M.W.; supervision, I.N.; project administration, B.L.-K.; funding acquisition, J.C. and B.L.-K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the Ministry of Health—the Republic of Poland Fund for Solving Gambling Problems, grant number 362/HE/2018. The APC was funded by the Ministry of Health—the Republic of Poland Fund for Solving Gambling Problems, grant number 362/HE/2018.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
