*3.1. Sample*

Sample characteristics are shown in Table 2. In our sample, almost all (98%) Brazilian mothers had completed secondary education or above and generally had a higher SES index (0.59) and FCI score (0.25) than in other settings. The Brazilian children had HAZ (−0.28) and WAZ (0.05) closest to the WHO standards. In the Malawi sample, very few caregivers went beyond secondary education, with most evenly split between those who completed primary or secondary education; the mean children's HAZ and WAZ were somewhat below the WHO normal standards (−0.85 and −0.06 respectively). Our Pakistan sample was the least educated, with only a third (36.8%) of mothers completing secondary school education or above. It also had the highest number of children with a low mean HAZ and WAZ (mean −1.1 and −0.92 respectively).


**Table 2.** Demographic features of children in IYCD sample across countries.

\* Socioeconomic status index score created from DHS using a two-parameter logistic IRT model. \*\* Family care indicator index score created from Family Care Indicators using a two-parameter logistic IRT model and GAMLSS for age correction. \*\*\* HAZ—height for age *z* score. \*\*\*\* WAZ—weight for age *z* score
