*3.2. J. Denny Weaver and 'the Narrative Christus Victor'*

Coming from an Anabaptist-Mennonite background, J.D. Weaver naturally proposes a nonviolent paradigm for interpretation of the atonement. After a series of articles published in the 1990s, he published a monograph, *The Nonviolent Atonement*, in 2001 in which he fully developed his atonement theory.

As Weaver points out, his 'Narrative Christus Victor' model has much in common with Ray's "demythologized" patristic view. Weaver, however, tries to ground his theory in "the narratives of the Gospels and Revelation rather than second- and third-century statements" (Weaver 2011, p. 282). The book of Revelation depicts God's community living in, but not of, this world and a "conflict and victory of the reign of God over the rule of Satan" (p. 27). The narrative of the Gospels portrays the same cosmic confrontation from an earthly perspective, in the ministry of God's Son. Jesus announced the coming Kingdom of God, healed the sick, expelled the demons, taught His followers not to retaliate to evil with more evil, and to love their enemies. All that Jesus said and did posed a threat to the devil's rule (in all its manifestations), so God's enemy tried to eliminate Him by the hands of men on the Cross. However, Jesus' resurrection revealed the reign of God and conquered the devil.

Weaver's understanding of the nature of evil implies that the devil is not a personified being, but "the accumulation of earthly structures which are not ruled by the reign of God (p. 307). He treats evil not as a supernatural ontological power which subjects human beings, but as some human collective moral defect which can be battled by "resisting evil and making the rule of God visible" (p. 312). Thus Weaver's concept describes "*salvation* and *discipleship*, not *atonement* at all" (Finlan 2007, p. 99), and it seems to downplay the question of man's redemption to a matter of personal spiritual growth and correcting the morals of this world.

From another point of view, Weaver's Christus Victor version brings many advantages for Christian doctrine as well as for ethics. It shows that the atonement is not an abstract transactional idea but God's action through Christ within history. Arguing for the nonviolent character of the atonement, Weaver underscores that this is not passive but "assertive and confrontational nonviolence that provides an opponent with an opportunity for transformation" (Weaver 2011, p. 37). This, undoubtedly, shows the strong ethical appeal of this idea of the atonement.

#### *3.3. Thomas Finger: Christus Victor as Nonviolent Atonement*

Belonging to the same Protestant tradition as Weaver, Thomas Finger for a long time argued that the Christus Victor view of the atonement is the most accurate representation of biblical teaching (Finger 1985, vol. 2, p. 348), and is consonant with the traditional Anabaptist understanding of redemption (Finger 2004, pp. 349–50).

In his exposition, Finger fully relies on Irenaeus' ideas. The devil tricked the first humans and snatched them from God, thus employing "the violent means". On the one hand, humans have become victims of sin; on the other, they are responsible for their choice. Sin itself is a "suprahuman, quasi-personal power" which snatches away from God, subjects them to its own rule, and leads them toward death (Finger 2006, pp. 92–93). God allows humans to bear the consequences of their sin, thus judging the sin indirectly and nonviolently "by handing people over to the lords they choose" (p. 94). Yet, the evil forces that punish people this way are at the same time God's enemies whom God works to destroy.

Finger considers all aspects of Christ's ministry important for his atoning work. Jesus recapitulates humanity and "walks the path God originally set before Adam and Eve" (p. 95). He obeys God's commandments, resists the forces of evil, and is defeated by them. He brings atonement "by servanthood and the way of peace" (p. 97). On the Cross, Jesus bears human wrath *directly* but suffers the judgment upon sin *indirectly*, as He is taking upon Himself its deadly consequences. The Father and the Son do not act by force but choose nonviolent means to redeem people. God does not inflict punishment on Jesus but allows Him to be afflicted by it (pp. 98–101). Jesus' resurrection (1) reveals the falsehood of political and religious powers who claimed to be the true guarantors of peace, yet crucified the Prince of Peace and God's Messiah; (2) tricks the devil who overstepped his rights by killing the innocent Christ;13 (3) gives new life in the Spirit, who destroys the operations of evil forces in human lives and fills their hearts with divine love (pp. 102–3).

Finger's Christus Victor model can be viewed as a creative and contemporary interpretation and implementation of Irenaeus' ideas. Though at times, when using the concepts of direct or indirect punishment, Finger seems to pay debt to the penal view, yet there is no impression that his reasoning is disconnected from the New Testament narratives or patristic thought. While focused on the mechanics of the atonement, Finger's model does not leave aside the practical implication of Christ's work. It shows that the atonement pertains not only to personal and spiritual salvation, but it contributes to the unity of people, teaching them to perceive violence as "central and related to all forms of sin" (p. 106) and courageously respond to it nonviolently in self-giving love. By doing this, believers and churches can develop alternative behaviors and structures, which would reflect the spiritual and moral transformation brought by Christ's atonement.

### *3.4. Gregory Boyd: Christus Victor as a Unifying Model of the Atonement*

In the words of Gregory Boyd, the Christus Victor theory can serve as an "encompassing conceptual model that might reveal an 'inner logic' to all aspects of Christ's work" (Boyd 2006, p. 24).

The whole biblical narrative, Boyd says, presents the earth and its inhabitants as existing in a cosmic war zone. Humans can be liberated from evil forces only through the radical in-breaking of God (pp. 27–28). The powers opposing God can be closely related to "the destructive spiritual force of various social structures and people groups—nations, governments, religions, classes, races, tribes", etc. Therefore, sin is viewed not as a matter of individual behavior, but as a quasi-autonomous power that holds people in bondage (p. 29). The healings, exorcisms, and resuscitations in the earthly ministry of Christ were weakening the power of the devil and advancing God's Kingdom. Through His death and resurrection, Jesus disarmed the evil powers, made public display of them (Col 2:15), and delivered people from bondage to sin and death (Heb 2:14–15). Humans can be saved only when the primary cause of their predicament is removed, which is why Boyd says that Christ's redemptive ministry has a cosmic significance: "Christ has in principle freed the cosmos from its demonic oppression and thus freed all inhabitants of the cosmos who will simply submit to this new loving reign" (Boyd 2006, p. 35). Now all spiritual progress in human life is achieved by partaking in this, God's victory. Thus, in Boyd's presentation of New Testament teaching we see how different aspects of Christ's ministry are joined by the one idea of God's victory over the powers of evil. The lives of the followers of Jesus also should be guided by one idea: that is, to imitate His life, manifest Kingdom values, and engage in His warfare (p. 40).

According to Boyd, the Christus Victor model of the atonement may serve as a unifying principle for the essential truths of other atonement models. Thus Christ died as our substitute (by becoming the new Adam and bearing the consequences of our sin), He gave His life as ransom for many (by releasing us from slavery to the devil, sin, and death); He recapitulated humankind (by His obedience, reversing the fall of the old Adam, and giving a new nature to humanity through the Spirit); He healed humanity (by freeing us from the disease of sin, removing our spiritual blindness, and transforming us into His likeness); He demonstrated His righteous stance against all sin (by suffering the violent force of evil for the sake of our sin); He gave us the example of overcoming evil and empowered us to follow Him and participate in the divine nature. Thus, just like so many aspects of Jesus' earthly ministry, the basic ideas of all models of the atonement "can be understood as one thing—overcome evil with good" (pp. 42–45).

Boyd's unifying model seems to present the most successful attempt to engage with the Christus Victor motif. He presents a biblically warranted, doctrinally sound and logically coherent theory, in which he manages to seamlessly integrate all the facets of Jesus' earthly ministry and the advantages of other atonement theories. Boyd shows a clear dependence between human salvation and the ontological cosmic victory of God over the powers of evil. Freedom from sin and new life is not possible without a preceding defeat of the devil through the ministry of Jesus. Finally, Boyd's interpretation of Christus Victor has many practical advantages: (1) it demonstrates that the redemptive ministry of Jesus is to be deeply embedded in the life of the believer—what Jesus did *for* man directly relates to what is enacted *in* man and *through* man who participates in God's victory in his daily endeavors; (2) it not only assures of the reality of evil powers, but shows their impact on many structures and spheres of human life. Christus Victor encourages Jesus' followers "to resist the demonically seductive pull of nationalism, patriotism, culturally endorsed violence, greed, racism and a host of other cultural evils" (p. 48).
