**1. Introduction**

In the summer of 2018, approximately sixty Eastern and Oriental Orthodox and Evangelical protestants gathered at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology for a consultation of the Lausanne-Orthodox Initiative.<sup>1</sup> As a convert with both deep gratitude for my Wesleyan Free Methodist upbringing and devotion to the spiritual home I have found in Eastern Orthodoxy, I was deeply blessed by the opportunity to participate with these men and women, clergy and laity, from around the world. The days were filled with fellowship, with good discussions, and with some honest talk about what makes us the same and what makes us distinct. I walked away feeling hopeful—connected to others who feel as I do that this type of ecumenism, which seeks to love the Christian Other in order to better love the world, is pleasing to God. Yet, I also walked away feeling uncertain—concerned that the very real differences between us are enough to keep us constantly apart in any but the most superficial ways. Most importantly, I walked away feeling more strongly affirmed in the importance of relationships and the desire to see these two Christian Traditions work together for the sake of the world.

It is necessary to pare down the extremely broad "search for Christian unity" to a more digestible, more specific, more practical issue. As an Eastern Orthodox Christian, my own Tradition is a natural home-base for discussion. Due to the wide variety of theology and praxis within Protestantism, it is impossible to compare this group of groups with Orthodoxy: Wesleyan Christians make up a large group at the center of Protestantism, which, along with their clear united historical antecedents, makes them a manageable comparison group. Brought by missionaries to the North American context quite close to each other in time, each tied to a historic tradition but also creating something new, Wesleyan Christianity and Orthodox Christianity2 have been passed on and practiced in a unique way within this context.

At the heart of Christianity is witness; evangelism, then, is a proper place to begin efforts at greater unity through dialogue. This paper will examine the possibility of Wesleyan-Orthodox cooperation in the area of evangelism by: describing the Wesleyan and Orthodox views of evangelism, delineating some key similarities and differences, and proposing a way forward for Wesleyans and Orthodox.

**Citation:** Whiteman, Kristina. 2021. Together toward Christ: Comparing Orthodox and Wesleyan Positions on Evangelism. *Religions* 12: 495. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12070495


Academic Editors: Bradley Nassif and Tim Grass

Received: 28 May 2021 Accepted: 29 June 2021 Published: 2 July 2021

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**Copyright:** © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

### **2. Introductory Definitions**

By way of preamble, some definitions are in order. First of all, "Wesleyan" may be defined as the Christian Tradition which hews closely to the teachings and example of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism who is also the basis for many other Protestant denominations' theology and praxis. This paper will focus on the theology of evangelism specifically espoused by John Wesley himself.

Secondly, for the purposes of this paper, "evangelism" will be defined as the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (see, for example: Jackson 2012, pp. 46, 52, 57; Hynson 1982, p. 27; Ware and Neff 2011, p. 41; Nissiotis 1975, p. 86; Tosi 2014, p. 10; Rommen 2017, p. 187; Wesley 1738; Wesley 1785c). As will be seen in the further discussion, this proclamation may take varied forms, and it may be characterized as "witness," as "sharing God's good news," as "communicating the gospel,", etc. Ultimately, whatever words are used to describe it, all evangelism is an effort to tell the one story of the salvific Incarnation, death, and Resurrection of Jesus Christ.

#### **3. John Wesley and Evangelism**

Although John Wesley himself did not use the word "evangelism" (Jackson 2012, p. 50), certainly sharing the gospel message was a central theme of both his writing and his personal ministry. Wesley understood evangelism as a process: first of all, those who have received the gospel message share that message, either with those who have never heard or with those who call themselves Christians but lack the true "religion of love" (Wesley 1796, p. 21; see also Outler 1971, p. 23; Wesley 1796; Wesley 1786). Over time, those who hear are first "awakened" to their life of sin and need for God (Jackson 2012, p. 51; Wesley 1760, 1765; Wesley 1738). This awakening leads to repentance, repentance leads to faith (Hynson 1982, p. 30; Jackson 2012, pp. 52–53; Wesley 1760, 1765), and faith leads to justification, or conversion.

The fruits of evangelism do not stop with personal conversion, however: faith grows with a commitment to Christ and leads to love (Hynson 1982, p. 34; Wainwright 2002; Wesley 1765, 1789; Knight and Powe 2006; Wesley 1760). This love, first of God but also of others (Hynson 1982, p. 32; Jackson 2012, pp. 53–54; Wesley 1765, 1789; Wainwright 2002; Wesley 1733, 1782, 1786, 1796), is not a mere emotion—it is more than an internal feeling. It is "faith active in love" (Hynson 1982, p. 31) through holy living, service to others, and verbal proclamation which is a confirmation of the gospel which has been received (Hynson 1982, p. 27; Jackson 2012, p. 51; Wesley 1760, 1765, 1785a, 1786). This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle, as those who take hold of the gospel cannot help but pass it on to others (Wesley 1733).

#### **4. Orthodoxy and Evangelism**

The words "evangelism," "mission," "witness," and "preach the gospel" are frequently used interchangeably by Eastern Orthodox Christians; in the American Orthodox Church3 in particular, evangelism is frequently tied to the Great Commission (See, for example, Schmemann 1959; additionally, each of the three largest American Orthodox jurisdictions (Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, The Orthodox Church in America, and the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) mention the Great Commission in their material on Outreach/Evangelism/Mission). An Orthodox understanding of evangelism would include preaching Christ to those who are nominally or culturally Christian, in addition to those who are completely outside the Faith (Nissiotis 1975, pp. 86, 90; Stamoolis 1986, pp. 56, 98; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 19).

For Orthodox, evangelism includes holiness of life and an authentic personal witness of empathetic, vulnerable love (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 58, 64, 70; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 80, 91; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 324; Tosi 2014, p. 21; Bria 1996, p. 48; Whiteman 2019). Worship is an integral part of evangelism (Lemopoulos 1998, p. 324; Bria 1975, p. 248; Tosi 2014, p. 4; Whiteman 2019; Stamoolis 1986, p. 10, 86–94), but spreading the good news is also often seen as involving more than verbal proclamation. Because evangelism is primarily "letting our light shine," it can include activities such as care for the poor (Nissiotis 1975, pp. 79, 88; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 64; Bria 1984, p. 67; Whiteman 2019; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 96).

The goal of evangelism is conversion to relationship with the Trinity through Christ (Nissiotis 1975, p. 87; Nassif 2004, p. 67; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 324; Tosi 2014, p. 4; Damick 2013, p. 16; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 148; Stamoolis 1986, p. 101); the "transmission of the life of communion which exists in God" (Nissiotis 1975, p. 78). Repentance, faith, and baptism go together (Nassif 2004, p. 79); it is in the Eastern Orthodox Church, which is itself the Eucharistic Community, that those who have been evangelized find this union with the Trinity in theosis and thus enter into the "'recapitulation of all things' (Eph 1: 1) in Christ and our participation in the divine glory, the eternal, final glory of God" (Yannoulatos 2010, p. 46).

#### **5. Key Similarities**

Wesleyan and Orthodox understandings of evangelism are certainly not identical, but they do have key similarities. For example, both Wesleyans and Orthodox Christians see evangelism as absolutely necessary rather than optional (Jackson 2012, p. 51; Hynson 1982, p. 40; Nissiotis 1975, p. 87; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 57; Nassif 2004, p. 83; Rommen 2017, p. 177; Chrysostom 1997; Abraham 1989, p. 165). It is the task of the whole community of God to tell others about what God has done in the world in Jesus Christ (Nissiotis 1975, p. 90; Bria 1984, p. 67; Bria 1975, p. 245; Schmemann 1959; Halvorsen 2007, p. 280). Additional agreements can be found in three major areas: the role of the Trinitarian God, the role of human beings, and process-oriented transformation.

#### **6. Evangelism: The Trinitarian God at Work**

The Trinitarian God is always the primary actor in both perspectives on evangelism (Lemopoulos 1998, p. 322; Wesley 1775, 1780; Wainwright 2002; Wesley 1796, p. 6; Vassiliadis 2002, p. 105; Wesley 1790, 1785c; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 7). God the Father, through the Incarnation of the Son, in the Holy Spirit, is active at every step. An immanent God reaches out to human beings with salvation which is a free gift, open to all people (Tyson 2000, pp. 60, 61; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 61, 95; Rommen 2017, p. 194; Wesley 1736, 1738, 1750, 1782, 1790, 1796; Nassif 2004, p. 47; Hynson 1982, p. 28; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 324).

Both traditions believe that God has been at work in advance of evangelism, preparing the way in the midst of cultural and personal contexts (Tyson 2000, p. 67; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 95; Nissiotis 1975, p. 77; Wesley 1765, 1780, 1788, 1796; Outler 1971, pp. 44–45). What Wesleyans would refer to as "prevenient grace" (Whiteman and Anderson 2009), Orthodox Christians might refer to as "spermatic Logos" (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 96; Justin and Falls 1965). Both convey the idea that God has provided for all people a path toward the path of salvation, even long before human beings hear the name of Christ. In fact, the ability to respond to evangelism—faith itself—is a divine gift given by God through the Holy Spirit (Nassif 2004, p. 74; Hynson 1982, p. 29; Wesley 1760, 1790, 1796; Tyson 2000, p. 52; Jackson 2012, p. 56; Grdzelidze 2007, p. 175).

Although Orthodox Christians perhaps emphasize the generally Trinitarian nature of evangelism more strongly than Wesleyans do (Nissiotis 1975, p. 77; Nassif 2004, p. 81), this may be a function of Orthodoxy's tendency to refer *everything* back to the Trinity (see, for instance, Yannoulatos 2010, p. 8) rather than an actual difference in theological opinion, as there is so much shared understanding as to the role of the persons of the Trinity. Both Wesleyan and Orthodox understandings of evangelism are highly focused on Christ's redemptive work (Tyson 2000, pp. 63, 66; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 75, 78; Lemopoulos 1998, pp. 324–25; Damick 2013, p. 16; Wesley 1736, 1780). The primary story being witnessed to is that of **Jesus**—he is the lynchpin, the one on whom all history turns. Both Traditions see the Incarnation, death, and Resurrection as central—this is the message evangelism seeks to communicate.

In another example of shared understandings, both have very similar views of the role of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit energizes Christians for evangelism, sanctifying them and empowering them to live holy lives and to express the gospel (Tyson 2000, pp. 52, 62, 65; Jackson 2012, pp. 46, 53; Hynson 1982, pp. 33, 35, 36; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 88, 92; Rommen 2017, p. 183; Wesley 1733, 1736, 1785c). The Holy Spirit awakens non-Christians to their sins, providing the conviction that "presses" them toward repentance (Jackson 2012, p. 55; Hynson 1982, p. 35; Nissiotis 1975, p. 77; Nassif 2004, p. 74; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 328; Rommen 2017, p. 199; Outler 1971, p. 46; Grdzelidze 2007, p. 175; Wesley 1760). Additionally, it is the Holy Spirit who is at work in and after conversion, sanctifying and transforming Christians (Nassif 2004, p. 71; Hynson 1982, p. 35; Jackson 2012, p. 53; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 322; Bria 1975, p. 250; Knight and Powe 2006; Charlesworth 2007, p. 68; Wesley 1733, 1736, 1760).

#### **7. Evangelism: Human Response to the Invitation of the Trinity**

In addition to shared understandings of the work of the Trinity, Wesleyan and Orthodox views hold similar understandings of the role people play in evangelism. First of all, humans retain their agency in reception of the gospel—God reaches out first, but people must respond of their own free will (Tyson 2000, p. 61; Jackson 2012, p. 48; Bria 1984, p. 70; Knight and Powe 2006; Grdzelidze 2007, p. 175; Wesley 1790). Even though it is entirely possible that people will ignore or respond in the negative, rejecting the message of evangelism (Nissiotis 1975, p. 76; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 54), it is absolutely vital that no coercion or manipulation be utilized—a free response to evangelism is the only valid response (Jackson 2012, pp. 48, 56; Hynson 1982, pp. 28, 38–40; Nassif 2004, p. 74). Secondly, humans retain their agency in expression of the gospel—although the natural outflow of the Holy Spirit's work in the Christian **is** love of God and neighbor, obedience is always invited, never forced (Tyson 2000, p. 52; Wesley 1789; Grdzelidze 2007, p. 175). Instead, God calls his people, offering them the opportunity to be a part of what He is doing in the world by sharing what has happened in their own hearts through evangelism (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 61–65; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 328; Rommen 2017, p. 177; Wesley 1786, 1796; Halvorsen 2007, p. 278).

According to both traditions, God has entrusted people with this special task in evangelism—he chooses to work "through human agents" (Jackson 2012, p. 55). Indeed, God's design is that "person-to-person contact" is the way his Good News moves throughout the world (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 59; see also Yannoulatos 2010, p. 27). It is the personal witness of Christian people which allows Jesus Christ to be made known (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 58, 64, 65; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 80, 91; Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese Department of Missions and Evangelism 2000; Jackson 2012, p. 51; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 328; Rommen 2017, p. 182; Wesley 1733, 1796).

Finally, both Orthodox Christians and Wesleyans agree that evangelism should be done in a way that is respectfully receiver-oriented; in other words, that the gospel should be communicated in ways that are aimed toward understanding and applicability on the part of those who are **hearing** (Rack 2002, p. 415). For Wesley, this meant expressing "plain truth for plain people" (Hynson 1982, p. 27; see also Hynson 1982, pp. 28, 30, 37–38, 40; Rack 2002, p. 344) with the goal of genuine, dialogical exchange that allowed the other person to make an informed choice (Hynson 1982, p. 30; see Wesley 1786). Orthodox Christians focus less on the decision-making process, but do think that evangelism should give genuine answers to the questions that people are actually asking (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 91; Bria 1984, p. 71). This receiver-orientation of evangelism is also seen in the Orthodox discussion of cross-cultural evangelism: the expression of the gospel in the language and culture of the people, sometimes referred to as "indigenization" of the gospel, is paramount (Nissiotis 1975, pp. 80, 87, 89; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 90, 93; Lemopoulos 1998, pp. 323, 329; Veronis 1994, p. 123).

#### **8. Evangelism Leads to Process-Oriented Transformation**

The third major category in which Orthodox Christians and Wesleyans share common understanding is this: there is an expectation that evangelism leads to process-oriented transformation (Tyson 2000, pp. 59–60, 62; Jackson 2012, pp. 50, 54; Hynson 1982, p. 27; Nassif 2004, p. 48; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 323; Fairbairn 2002, p. 8; Wesley 1765; Knight and Powe 2006; Rack 2002, p. 395; Halvorsen 2007, p. 284; Wesley 1733, 1760, 1784, 1785c, 1794). The goal is a new life (Nissiotis 1975, p. 87), that the Christian would become a "new creation" in Christ (Nissiotis 1975, p. 78; Hynson 1982, p. 33). Although conversion is a moment of inflection, it results in a progressive movement in the life of a Christian toward greater holiness—Christians grow more and more Christ-like.

Love of God inspires love of neighbor—this is the joint evidence, process, and result of this transformation (Hopko 1976, pp. 96, 104; Tyson 2000, pp. 52, 66; Hynson 1982, p. 32; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 79, 88; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 326; Chrysostom; Wesley 1733, 1760, 1784, 1796). Out of this love, Christians witness both through but also beyond words, as the way they live their actual lives is revolutionized ((Jackson 2012, p. 51; Hynson 1982, p. 33; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 64; Wesley 1765; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 79, 83, 85, 86, 88; Lemopoulos 1998, p. 324, 326; Abraham 1989, p. 106). This change, the result of evangelism, goes beyond the individual as well—societal structures and cultural contexts are transfigured as Christians actively live out Christ's love in the world (Tyson 2000, pp. 62, 65–66; Hynson 1982, pp. 28, 31, 33–34; Nissiotis 1975, pp. 79, 87, 89–90; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, pp. 98, 100; Bria 1984, p. 68; Lemopoulos 1998, pp. 323, 327, 329; Outler 1971, pp. 25–33; Rack 2002, p. 365, 447).

A key part of this transformation process is being welcomed into a discipling community (Knight and Powe 2006; Wesley 1796; Outler 1971, p. 26). No person can be transformed alone (Wesley 1782; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 102; Tosi 2014, p. 14; Plekon 2007, p. 61; Vassiliadis 2002, p. 101). We need others to encourage, guide, admonish, and invite us deeper into the Christian life (Abraham 1989, p. 54; Knight and Powe 2006). Indeed, it is only as a member of a group that an individual can truly imitate the life-giving love of the Trinity (Vassiliadis 2002, p. 104; Damick 2013, pp. 3, 17).

#### **9. Key Differences**

Although Wesleyans and Orthodox Christians believe many of the same things about evangelism, it would be a mistake to imply that they are wholly compatible on this topic. On the part of many ecumenically minded authors—myself included—there can be a tendency to overlook or bypass these out of a desire for deeper unity. However, there are very real distinctions between the two, and it would be dishonest to say otherwise (Rommen 2004, p. 249; Jillions 2007, p. 55; see Nikolaev 2007, p. 95). These differences can generally be categorized as: differences in emphasis, intermediate differences, and one key divisive difference.

#### **10. Differences in Emphasis**

First of all, even within the areas of similarity, there are differences in emphasis. For example, the Orthodox insist upon the inclusion of the entire Trinity in discussions of evangelism, while Wesleyans focus primarily on Christ and the Holy Spirit (see, for

example, Wesley 1736). Because Orthodox literature referring to the specific role of the Father is scarce, and because the Wesleyan inclusion of the Father seems to me implicit (see, for example, Wesley 1780, 1785a, 1789), this variation seems more a matter of semantics than sense.

Similarly, the Wesleyan spotlight on "justification by faith" referred to by Hynson multiple times seems to be a difference in intensity rather than variety (1982, pp. 27, 28, 29, 39; Wesley 1765; see also Tyson 2000, p. 56; Outler 1971, p. 38; Wesley 1790, 1794). Orthodox Christians share a high regard for the role of faith, seeing it both as given by God and essential for the believer. They would also agree that salvation is a gift from God rather than payment for good works (Wesley 1796, p. 6, 11; Nassif 2004, p. 74; Outler 1971, pp. 44–45; Rack 2002, p. 392). At the same time, Orthodox Christians tend to shy away from this very Protestant way of expressing things. So, the two are in agreement in substance but with differing accentuation.

#### **11. Intermediate Differences**

In addition to these differences in emphasis, there are differences in approach to evangelism that can be thought of as "intermediate." This label is used because these are more substantial than the previously mentioned divergences but do not, necessarily, bring Wesleyans and Orthodox Christians to a point of conflict. They need to be addressed in more depth than alternative emphases. Although there may be additional differences that fall into this category, the two clearest from the literature examined are Orthodoxy's eschatological focus and Wesley's understanding of sanctification.

Orthodox Christians' understanding of evangelism is highly eschatological, pointed toward the end of all things, in which the entire cosmos is transformed (Nissiotis 1975, pp. 78, 80; Bria 1975, pp. 249–50; Behr 2007, p. 195; Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 98; Nassif 2004, p. 55; Rommen 2017, p. 206; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 102). This is the primary goal of evangelism. While Wesleyans certainly see evangelism as affecting more than just individual souls4, the restoration of the soul to the original Image of God is the primary action of conversion (Hynson 1982, p. 31; Abraham 1989, pp. 57, 59; Wesley 1736, 1741, 1765, 1784, 1785c, 1794). That which happens after, the change in life that leads to changes in society, is primarily a *result.*

The Orthodox view of evangelism, on the other hand, approaches redemption from a different angle;5 it is focused on the holistic renewal of all created matter (Nissiotis 1975, p. 79; Halvorsen 2007, pp. 274, 277; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 46). The salvation of the individual is part and parcel of the larger picture of the now-but-not-yet Kingdom (Nissiotis 1975, p. 78; Behr 2007, p. 191; Vassiliadis 2002, p. 102; Whiteman 2019; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 48, 49). An evangelism-toward-the Kingdom approach makes Orthodox Christians willing to consider a much wider variety of activities as directly evangelistic. Wesleyans, on the other hand, are more likely to see activities such as feeding the hungry as expressing the love of Christ but not necessarily *evangelism*. The eschatological-Kingdom-focus of Orthodoxy does not necessarily go against the salvation-of-souls-focus of Wesley. Additionally, the argument can be made that Wesley's idea of "social holiness" which included both Christian community and the transformation of societies, is an effort toward building the Kingdom of God. However, the Orthodox eschatology is undeniably a distinctive.

In a second intermediate difference, the Wesleyan view of sanctification, of becoming more holy and of living a life of love of God and others, though greatly influenced by Orthodox writings (Heitzenrater 2002; Wainwright 2002; Wesley 1775, 1785a; Abraham 1989, p. 9; Vassiliadis 2002, p. 101; Young 2002, pp. 157, 164, 167– 68), does not line up perfectly with the Orthodox idea of *theosis* (Nassif 2004, p. 42; Grdzelidze 2007, p. 173; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 47; Stamoolis 1986, p. 9). This goes back to an understanding of what happens in this process: Wesley does see sanctification as the "restored participation of fallen humanity in the Divine life and power," but this is understood to mean that the image of God in each person is being restored

through the work of the Holy Spirit in the human heart (Tyson 2000, p. 53). The Orthodox understanding of sanctification would go beyond this, to say that this restoration happens through *communion* with God, through participation in the energies of the life of the Trinity (Nissiotis 1975, p. 78; Shuttleworth 2005; Damick 2013, p. 8; Yannoulatos 2010, p. 46). The Wesleyan understanding of the end goal of evangelism is missing this special relationship which is a "distinctive characteristic" of Orthodox Christian thinking (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 68; Wesley 1741; See Tyson 2000, pp. 53–54). Here, there is more possibility of conflict, as Wesleyans who are perfectly comfortable with Wesley's understanding of sanctification may be uncomfortable with the idea of actual union with God, which is vital to Orthodox understanding of *theosis* (Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas 2000, p. 15; Shuttleworth 2005).
