*2.2. Analytical Framework*

Barriers to renewable energy technology penetration in general and to PV technology specifically are global phenomena, and appear quite similarly in the literature, with only some country or technology-specific differences. Child et al. [25] has categorized major barriers to renewable energy technology penetration in six categories: "market failure/imperfection, market distortions, economic and financial, institutional, technical, and social, cultural and behavioural".

Some of the barriers noted by [25] include limited access to information, a bias for established energy resources, financial barriers, the circumstance that externalities are not factored into the decision-main process, lack of training, and a lacking acceptance [26].

Hvelplund has paid extensive attention to ownership [27,28] as a barrier and as an incentive for the advancement of energy technologies, however in our assessment we found little indication of the impacts of ownership in terms of acting as a barrier or opportunity. Some anecdotal evidence exists in terms of what type of actors have adapted PV technology in Kenya—but mainly on off-grid applications.

Also, not all the barriers identified by [25] are relevant or applicable in the Kenyan context. These categories of barriers and opportunities for success were therefore revisited and updated to make them relevant in the Kenyan context. Consequently, the range of barriers constraining the deployment of PV was categorized into technological, economic, institutional and policy as shown in Figure 2. This categorization is applied as the analytical framework.

As the fourth step in this analysis, the four categories of barriers and opportunities identified in the analytical framework presented in Figure 2 were evaluated. In addition to the literature search and analysis of other secondary materials such as government reports, conference papers and peer reviewed articles, this paper draws on in-sights from case studies on the Garissa solar PV project and the UNDP solar PV project—both in Kenya. The first author also draws on first-hand experience with installation of PV systems in the western part of Kenya. The first author reflects on his practical experiences on barriers that limit the uptake of PV and the existing opportunities and how they apply on a national scale to enrich the content of this paper.

**Figure 2.** Analytical framework for assessing barriers and opportunities for increased integration of solar PV in Kenya.

As a last step in the analyses, international experience with pumped hydro storage is explored in order to show that it is technically and economically feasible to roll out this technology in Kenya.

#### **3. Barriers to Increasing Integration of PV in Kenya**

The barriers identified in the literature review are presented in this section—organised according to the analytical framework present in Section 2. These barriers are categorized into three: technological, economic and institutional barriers.

The advent of the PV technology in Kenya in the 1970s was mainly facilitated by donors and particularly in the 1980s, PV systems were donated to facilities such as health clinics that were off-grid [17]. During the implementation of PV in rural off-grid areas it was established that there was a market for PV technology beyond the scope of health clinics and off-grid missions [21]. Thus, within two years from 2000 to 2002, households increased the purchases of PV systems from 20% to 40% of total annual PV purchases. However, the benefits from the solar PV systems were mainly accrued by the rural middle class [28]. Consequentially, poorer rural households were sidestepped in terms of receiving subsidized PV systems [29].

With time, a focus on the rural affluent allowed the PV sector to be commercially viable without reliance on donors or subsidies. Specifically, in the 2000s, focus was on the middle-income segment, which was propelled by reduced costs of PV systems and a desire for the middle class to watch television [28]. These advances have led to the development of a considerable amount of PV systems being installed [30], however most of the development in Kenya has been in the form of stand-alone (i.e., off-grid) systems that are not connected to national grid. Thus, the PV market in Kenya has evidenced use of Solar Home Systems, which has been considered the most successful off-grid solar market in the developing economies [31].
