**Abbreviations**

ABC, ATP binding cassette; AGEs, advanced glycation end-products; AUC, area under the curve; BCRP, breast cancer resistance protein; BSEP, bile salt export pump; Cmax, peak concentration; CLint, intrinsic clearance; CON, control rats; CYP450s cytochrome P450 enzymes; DM, diabetic rats; FXR, farnesoid X receptor; GLUT9, glucose transporter 9; HFD, high-fat diet; MATEs, multidrug/toxin extrusions; MCTs, monocarboxylate transporters; MRPs, multidrug resistance-associated proteins; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; NPT1/4, sodium-dependent phosphate transport protein 1/4; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; NTCP, sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide; OATPs, Organic anion transporting polypeptides; OATs, organic anion transporters; OCTs, organic cation transporters; PBPK, physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model; Peff, apparent intestinal effective permeability; PepTs, peptide transporters; P-gp, P-glycoprotein; PKCα, protein kinase C alpha; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor; PXR, pregnane X receptor; SCFAs, short chain fatty acids; SHP, small heterodimer partner; SGLT2, sodium-glucose cotransporter; SLC, solute carrier; STZ, streptozocin; TSOD, Tsumura, Suzuki, obese, diabetes; UGTs, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases; URAT1, urate transporter 1; ZSF1, Zucker spontaneously hypertensive fatty.
