*3.3. LINKS: Integrating Local and Scientific Knowledge*

Previous studies have documented the effectiveness of LINKS for reframing local knowledge in scientific terms, for example to mitigate the effects of hydro-meteorological disasters in coastal areas. *Smong* was used in Aceh to strengthen communities following the tsunami disaster in 2004, while *Ai lulik* and *Fatuk lulik* were used to predict and prevent landslides in Timor Leste, and *Rapu-rapu* was used to predict typhoons in the Philippines [15]. However, these studies did not comprehensively explain how local knowledge has been applied in the absence of scientific data, nor how to manage small areas affected by certain kinds of disasters using local knowledge. In this study, we applied LINKS to the agricultural system in Jawa, using *Pranata Mangsa* as a framework. Thus, local knowledge was used in association with scientific data (e.g., on diurnal rainfall and extreme hydrological events) to adapt to floods and drought conditions.

We found that *Pranata Mangsa* can be interpreted using LINKS. Our findings confirmed that local knowledge can be integrated with scientific data to increase the resilience of Javanese agricultural communities to floods and drought. Our initial analysis, LINKS I, showed that diurnal rainfall data accorded with the characteristics of, and transition among, seasons. *Sate sumber* refers to drought, which is concerning for farmers but can be well explained by empirical data. *Sate sumber* may occur during *Kasa*, *Karo*, and *Katelu* when the precipitation amount is below 50 mm day−1. In response, the *Bera*-*Palawija* crop pattern was established in *Katiga* and *Labuh* based on *Pranata Mangsa*, and has reduced crop losses, improved soil quality, and increased soil moisture. In addition, farming activities are scheduled with water management (*Macak-macak*), soil recovery, and pest management in mind, thus, increasing the number of panicles and paddy yield in Indonesia [23], and reducing water consumption and methane emissions [33]. Also, *Berå* and the application of burnt rice husk (2 tons ha<sup>−</sup>1) as an organic amendment can alleviate meteorological and agricultural drought through the "restland" concept. This can allow farmers to adapt to the effects of widely varying precipitation amounts [34], and will improve soil bulk density and porosity [35].

As discussed above, some aspects of *Pranata Mangsa* cannot be explained by, or integrated with, scientific data, but nevertheless have a significant effect on DRR and CCA (based on our second analysis, LINKS II). Our analysis of local knowledge indicated that rituals and ceremonies promote respect for God and nature among Javanese peasants. As an example, *Istisqa* is a farming activity practiced when the dry season arrives, based on faith-based beliefs and designed to make communities more resilient. According to our LINK IV analysis, some components of *Pranata Mangsa* cannot be related to DRR or CCA, including *Sesajen*, which is the rituals to the God by placing some materials, including myrrh, fruit, and cigarettes at the side of the field for repelling pest or as a pest management. Our results showed that the components of the local knowledge were verified and validated by a scientific data approach, so as to inform policies supporting farming activities, and empower communities to make informed decisions regarding adaptation and DRR.

To our knowledge, this was the first study to investigate the effectiveness of LINKS for integrating local and scientific knowledge of agriculture to mitigate the effects of drought and floods. Our results indicated that *Pranata Mangsa* can be easily integrated with scientific data, enabling optimal strategies for DRR and CCA to be adopted by scientists, farmers, and policymakers. Although LINKS was successfully used to integrate *Pranata Mangsa* with scientific data, the applicability of this approach to other knowledge systems in Indonesia should be assessed in future work.
