4.2.8. CBNRM Benefits

Receiving monetary or non-monetary benefits from CBNRM programs increased the adoption of all the adaptation strategies in the model. Although the influence was not significant for all the adaptation strategies, the provision of CBNRM benefits to the community was likely to provide a source of livelihood. As an alternative source of income and incentive for conserving local resources, CBNRM benefits were likely to motivate farmers to take up agricultural adaptations and, in a way, reduce overexploitation and overdependence on other ecosystem products. Coordinated efforts by relevant departments such as National Parks and Wildlife, Forestry, and Range Resources and Tourism and Hospitality are needed to further enhance CBNRM benefits among communities in Bobirwa sub-district to encourage them to conserve the local ecosystems.

#### 4.2.9. Tropical Livestock Units (TLU)

Higher Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) improved the likelihood of the adoption of all strategies in Bobirwa sub-district except Land, Soil, and Water Conservation Adaptations. Therefore, increasing livestock ownership by households in the study area encouraged the adoption of adaptation strategies. For instance, households with more livestock such as cattle, goats, and sheep were expected to easily take up livestock practices to safeguard them from climate change or drought-induced loss of pastures and disease outbreaks [46]. Donkeys are an important source of draft power in Bobirwa sub-district and facilitate the adoption of labor-intensive adaptation practices such as land and soil management which involve tilling the land. Draft power is critical for smallholder farmers in the study area since household labour was shown to be constrained by the emigration of able-bodied household members in search of economic opportunities as explained earlier. Enhancing livestock ownership, particularly donkeys, increases draft power which can facilitate the adoption of such agronomic practices as soil and water conservation, changing to new crops, varying planting dates as well as diversification of crop enterprises. These practices are labour intensive; therefore, less likely to be adopted in the absence of, or with inadequate, currently low ownership of tractors or draft animals, particularly donkeys.

As livestock are not only a source of income but also a form of wealth, previous studies have shown that being wealthy was associated with improved access to information [14,38,64]. Access to climate and agricultural information has already been shown in this study to remarkably improve the uptake of adaptation strategies. Several previous studies also showed that wealthy households had more access to information which in turn influence uptake of technologies and other innovations such as conservation agriculture and climate-smart agriculture more than poor farmers with less or no livestock [39,43,65]. However, the negative effect of TLU (livestock), which reduced the chances of taking up Land, Soil and Water Conservation as an adaptation strategy, could be because such sole adaptations have fewer welfare effects on the households. Therefore, smallholder farmers were more likely to adopt those strategies which have multiple benefits.

#### 4.2.10. Agricultural Land Tenure Arrangements

The positive effect of officially owning agricultural land on the adoption of all the adaptation strategies except Livestock Adaptations is attributed to the relative security of tenure which allows farmers to invest in different adaptations. Several studies also found a positive correlation between ownership of agricultural land and adoption of adaptation strategies, improved technologies as well as farm investments and developments [37,43,65]. Conversely, those who did not own agricultural land were discouraged from investing on the land as they lacked security of tenure to make any significant investments on the land.

Although the ownership of agricultural land by households in the study area was reported as private ownership, this was different from the freehold tenure on privately-owned farms. Households in the study area did not have exclusive rights to their agricultural land as it was communal land. However, being issued certificates of occupation provides households with relative security compared

to those who rent, occupy illegally, or have temporary use of family land. Expediting the issuance of agricultural land by the local Land Board and securing land ownership could encourage households to invest in long-lasting adaptations.
