*2.4. Scientific View of Local Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies*

The Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS) is a UNESCO interdisciplinary initiative that works: (1) to secure an active and equitable role for local communities in resource management; (2) to strengthen knowledge transmission across and within generations; (3) to explore pathways to balance community-based knowledge with global knowledge in formal and nonformal education; (4) to support the meaningful inclusion of local and indigenous knowledge in biodiversity conservation and management, and climate change assessment and adaptation [18]. We adopted LINKS to examine the components of *Pranata Mangsa*: crop calendar, crop pattern, and farming system; these domains were classified into four LINKS categories [18].

LINKS Category I: types of local and indigenous knowledge in this category include: (a) observations of celestial bodies (e.g., the moon, sun, and stars), which could help communities predict hazards; (b) environmental observations, such as of the direction and strength of winds; color, formation, and location of clouds; plants; and animal behavior; (c) materials used by local people for disaster mitigation, preparedness, responses, and recovery (e.g., for houses, as well as food eaten during periods of food scarcity); (d) environmental regulations, which play a major role in preventing and mitigating hazards such as coastal erosion, landslides, and floods (e.g., *Tara Bandu,* practiced in Timor-Leste, which governs social relations and places restrictions on the use of natural resources).

LINKS Category II: this category includes faith-based beliefs, and traditional rituals, legends, and songs. These phenomena cannot be explained in scientific terms, but are practiced by communities to improve resilience and "inner strength". Thus, it is necessary to maintain these practices across generations. Faith-based beliefs and practices have been reported by many disaster survivors to improve community resilience, strengthen their will, and enable them to move forward. Such comments were made repeatedly by survivors of Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda, which struck the Philippines in November 2013.

LINKS category III: this category includes local and indigenous knowledge related to climate change and disaster prediction that cannot be understood from a scientific perspective. For example, people in Rapu-rapu island, Philippines, believe that a typhoon will occur when fish keep on moving with no rest, but researchers reported that the sign is not related to meteorological elements and as a behavior of fish for mating or food searching.

LINKS category IV: this category includes beliefs with no scientific basis that cannot be used for weather or disaster prediction. *Aneuk jame* which is a local knowledge in the coastal area of Aceh, Indonesia, has a belief that a hazard or disaster will occur when dogs howl loudly. This sign has no scientific evidence and is not related to the disaster.

#### **3. Results and Discussion**

#### *3.1. Pranata Mangsa: An overview*

In what we term "the kingdom era", Javanese society had four social classes: *Brahmana* (religious leaders), *Ksatria* (soldiers), *Waisya* (peasants), and Sudra (businessmen). The peasants were agrarian people who adhered to the "*Hamemayu Hayuning Bawana*" social philosophy, which focuses on creating a harmonious world through sustainable and environmentally friendly practices [28]. Javanese society in the kingdom era, i.e., from the Majapahit (700 AD) to the Mataram (1855 AD) kingdom, established local knowledge on water management and agricultural systems. King Mpu Sendok (929 AD) proposed the creation of many small farm reservoirs around the Brantas River (320 km length) in Jawa Timur and Bengawan River (600 km length) in Jawa Tengah [19]. On 22 June 1855, King Sri Susuhunan Pakubuwono VII introduced the practice of using *Pranata Mangsa* as a crop calendar, and as a basis for organizing agricultural activities. The words *Pranata* and *Mangsa* mean rule and season, respectively

The crop calendar starts around the summer solstice (on 22 June). On initial inspection, *Pranata Mangsa* appears very complicated and confusing because the number of days in each month varies from 23 to 43, as shown in Figure 2; this shape is based on the library of Mangkunegaran palace, which visualizes the *Pranata Mangsa* calendar. However, more careful examination revealed that the calendar is based on local cosmology. *Pranata Mangsa* has 12 months: *Kasa*, *Karo*, *Katelu*, *Kapat*, *Kalima*, *Kanem, Kapitu*, *Kawolu*, *Kasanga*, *Kadhasa*, *Sadha*, and *Dhesta*. The first 6 months have 41, 23, 24, 25, 27, and 43 days, respectively. The sequence is reversed in the latter 6 months, except for the 8th month, which has 26 rather than 27 days in normal years (*Wuntu*; it has 27 days in leap years (*Wastu*)). This local knowledge guides peasants to plan their activities in accordance with the seasonal cycle (Table 2).

**Figure 2.** *Pranata Mangsa* in the Gregorian calendar. The numbers represent the numbers of days in the seasons and months, respectively.

*Pranata Mangsa* has a unique climate classification system: Javanese peasants use *Titen* to understand the progression of the seasons. *Titen* refers to the understanding, skills, and philosophies of Javanese peasants, accrued through their long history of interaction with the bioclimate. Together with other environmental factors, the bioclimate is crucial to the existence, growth, reproduction, and distribution of living organisms [29]. The bioclimates of various organisms have been well documented [30]. Based on bioclimatological parameters, *Pranata Mangsa* distinguishes among four climatic seasons, as follows:


**Table 2.** Description of the *Pranata Mangsa* on each *Mangsa.*


*Pranata Mangsa* informed the organization of the farming system used by Javanese peasants, including crop patterns, irrigation, and field activities. The farming season starts on *Kasa* (22 June). The crop pattern for a given year is referred to as *Berå*-*Palawija*-Paddy, which is described in more detail below.

