*2.2. TEK as the Agency of Natural-Resource Management*

Studies on TEK have been based on conflicts between local communities and the government, including the expert systems that the governments relied on [9]. Studies on TEK have been the focus since the 1980s due to local communities facing numerous conflicts with the rational methodology of "modern" environmental conservation, which is derived from Western scientific ideology [12].

TEK, local knowledge (LK), and indigenous environmental knowledge (IK), although somewhat different from each other, all address knowledge that was previously neglected by so-called "Western" science. These three types of knowledge focus more on the relationships of communities with the local environment and natural resources. For example, Posey argues that indigenous environmental knowledge is compatible with Western science; furthermore, it is also important to discuss the cultural rights of indigenous communities in the context of governance [13]. The first studies on indigenous environmental knowledge mostly focused on the "tradition" perspective and how traditional knowledge can be in opposition to science. In other words, earlier research on indigenous environmental knowledge also neglected its dynamics. Therefore, some scholars noticed that indigenous environmental knowledge is locally adaptive [14,15]. I define IK as a subset of TEK, which refers to a local knowledge system that is interactive with the local environment and is embedded in the context of local rituals, social interactions, social organizations, and daily practices.

In terms of the characteristics described above, we could identify TEK as an adaptive complex system of knowledge, practices, and belief, which is developed by an adaptive process in the local community with cultural practices, including the following dimensions: knowledge of local natural resources, a management system, social organization, and the context of local beliefs and worldviews [16].
