**1. Introduction**

Climate is a unique but important exogenous determinant of vegetation and crop productivity. Climate change threatens ecosystem products, food production, and food security in Bobirwa sub-district similar to what has been found in other parts of the world [1]. For developing countries, where resilience to changes in climate is weak, the consequences are even more pronounced and widespread [2]. Ecosystem products and subsistence agriculture are critical to alleviating extreme poverty and significantly contribute to rural livelihoods in many developing countries [3]. However, climate change impacts on local ecosystems threaten the adaptive capacity of poor people [4–6].

Previous studies have highlighted threats imposed by adverse climate on agricultural productivity and vegetation-based provisioning services as shown in studies elsewhere [7]. The impacts of adverse climate and human activities in Bobirwa sub-district which include fluctuations in biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem products have been identified before [8]. The occurrence of extreme weather events such as droughts in Bobirwa sub-district could further limit the availability of ecosystem products such as Mopane caterpillars (*Imbrasia belina*) which were reported to significantly contribute to the income and food security among communities in Bobirwa sub-district and other areas elsewhere as also found by [9].

Studying current human adaptations may highlight challenges or inadequacies of human efforts which enable identification of more innovative ways of coping with climate change impacts [10,11]. Previous studies such as [12–14] found that human adaptations among the poor and marginalized in developing countries were sub-optimal and could easily surpass current performances. For ecological systems, biodiversity keeps adapting to the changing climate [15,16]. However, some species adapt faster than others and the less adaptable ones are increasingly threatened. Therefore, adaptations in natural systems can no longer be left to occur naturally given the increased interference from humans. This contrasts with human and semi-natural systems where adaptations are relatively easier to achieve. This is because measures often have shorter cycles than in natural systems which often have longer life cycles to achieve the same [17]. Therefore, measures that enforce certain regulations are required to help socio-ecological systems to adapt [18]. Botswana is already experiencing the adverse impacts of climate change as evident from the frequent droughts, erratic rainfall patterns, heatwaves, and warming temperatures [19]. With the high dependence of livelihoods in rural areas on agriculture and ecosystem products, the frequent exposure to climate change impacts threatens livelihoods, particularly of the poor who often have low adaptive capacities. Recent studies have shown the increased vulnerability of Botswana to climate change [20]. The most vulnerable livelihoods are those that depend on agriculture, biodiversity, water, and other natural products. This highlights an urgent need for these sectors to effectively adapt [19]. Though local communities in Botswana have a long experience with droughts, this could imply that they have in place measures to minimize or moderate these impacts. However, the vulnerability of agriculture, biodiversity, water, and other natural products which underpin livelihoods in many developing countries not only depends on the extent and magnitude of climate change but also on society's adaptive capacity [21].

While the choice and extent of adaptation may highlight the capacity of humans to adapt to the multiple stresses caused by climate change, enhancing such capacities requires an understanding of the factors which influence adaptation decisions. This is a critical step towards seeking ways to improve the resilience to the incremental impacts caused by climate change. Despite several studies such as [21,22] agreeing that awareness of the changes in climate is critical to adaptation decisionmaking, the same cannot be said for semi-arid areas where indigenous people have experienced impacts similar to climate change for many years. As climate change adaptation is at a local scale, the present study uses a case study of Bobirwa sub-district in the Limpopo Basin part of Botswana to understand the adaptation behaviour of indigenous people. This is important for providing context-specific recommendations that can enhance local adaptations; hence, the findings from this study cannot be generalized for other similar areas, in Botswana, or elsewhere.

Previous studies that analyzed adaptation to climate as well as the factors influencing the choice of adaptation strategies in developing countries have mainly focused on single livelihood strategies and have often been done at the regional level or across several countries [12,23,24]. Findings from such studies are not only highly aggregated but too general and limited to be useful for local communities where the threats of climate change are highly localized. This study, therefore, examined the actual household-level responses including the factors enabling or limiting the adoption of various strategies at the disposal of households in the semi-arid Bobirwa sub-district. The study employed an established approach in examining the adaptation behaviour of individuals and households in rural farming communities in Africa [14,25,26]. Precisely, this study applied the multinomial logit (MNL) regression model to examine the determinants of households' adaptation choices. This technique has been extensively employed to analyze adaptation decisions involving multiple options. The advantage of MNL is that it is simpler and more sound than other available options such as the multinomial probit (MNP) [23]. The analysis was guided by the following research questions:

