*4.2. TEK and Local Marine Management*

TEK is not a static knowledge system but interacts with the environment to be an evolving process of knowledge. TEK on the local marine area in A'tolan can be learned from spearfishing men. However, there are still some issues that need to be surmounted. The challenges among the A'tolan Amis are as follows.

### 4.2.1. Climate Disasters and Crises of Reef Fish

As mentioned above, recent typhoon impacts have been becoming more critical and unpredictable as well as more intense. Typhoon Morakot caused major damage to the coral-reef ecosystem; fish populations have not recovered to what they were before. This is a major problem for Amis spearfishing men in A'tolan.

Furthermore, the other impact from the land is in the form of development projects, both for tourism and for agriculture. The growth of tourism brings more people, which implies that more wastewater goes into the sea without any water treatment. As for agriculture, chemical pesticides also flow into the sea. These problems cannot be managed by the local community alone; they require investigation, data collection, and a large budget to improve infrastructure.

#### 4.2.2. Fishing as a Way of Survival

Most of the discourse describing freediving spearfishing regards it as a sustainable way to catch fish due to indigenous people only taking what they need at the time. Traditionally, most young Amis could spearfish on their own and did not need to buy fish. However, it cannot be denied that some of the spearfishing men make a living from spearfishing. They sell most of the fish to those whose young family members are not at home but working in the cities. In A'tolan, there is only one old spearfishing man who relies on selling fish to the villagers. This elder will sometimes spear small fish to sell. However, it seems insensitive to ask him not to spear a certain small fish because he is considered a master of spearfishing and is an elder, and according to custom, younger people need to respect their elders.

However, the younger generation is more easily managed because the age organization in A'tolan is still functional. As long as the mikumoday and the kakita'an (traditional leader) identify certain fish, sizes, seasons, conservation areas, etc., most of the younger generation will follow the rules. As for outsiders who come to the traditional marine territory, it will not be possible to enforce the regulations because the niyaro' has no authority or manpower to stop them, especially from hook fishing.

#### 4.2.3. Political Rights: Sovereignty

The government does not understand the use of local TEK in managing marine areas and also does not have enough equipment or manpower to enforce the regulations, so it is not effective to manage local marine areas via top-down governance. CBNRM can be a solution to managing local natural resources, but the local community (institute) has no authority either. As Brad Coombes mentioned, an indigenous community has a sense of self-determination to defend their own environment, although internal ambivalence leads to an institutional process representing the indigeneity [19]. In other words, CBNRM in an indigenous community must be connected with the self-autonomy of the indigenous people.

Other examples of indigenous sovereignty as the key to CBNRM can be found in Hawaii. On Moloka'i, there is an indigenous community that manages its own marine area based on the local custom of consulting nature. Local indigenous communities have been forming a management system for marine areas based on some specific individuals learning local TEK, including environmental knowledge, beliefs, and the worldview to not only manage the marine area but also to teach others the TEK. This example has influenced many other Hawaiian communities and schools [39]. Therefore, there are more and more studies focusing on exploring indigenous ocean knowledge, which is utilized

in marine management [40,41]. Furthermore, there are some cases stressing the relationship between marine management and Hawaii's indigenous sovereignty [42,43].

In terms of Moloka'i's case, the customary sea tenure is one of the key issues of indigenous sovereignty. The legal framework of customary sea tenure is based on local TEK, which is not only recognized by the governmental authorities but also respected by the dominant society. In other words, the practices of TEK help top establish and legitimize local sea tenure [44] (p.19). Furthermore, the recognition and reinforcement of customary sea tenure and indigenous institutions for managing local marine resources "offer the best prospect for reconnecting fractured jurisdictional domains, and for bringing about social equity, environmental protection, and self-determined regional development" [45]. Therefore, customary marine tenure systems have a better chance of success in the management of local marine resources, and governments must strengthen them to enable them to play their role in sustainable marine-resource management [46]. In sum, due to the self-determination movement in the indigenous community, there is a chance to utilize TEK in locally managing a marine area, although the community must define the unity (community) and identify the key individuals as a team (institution) to proceed with CBNRM.

In A'tolan, the age organization has been representing the niyaro' since the 1990s. It is confusing that there are three different levels taking care of the public affairs in the community, including the administration village, Community Development Association, and Cultural Association of A'tolan Amis representing niyaro'. The Cultural Association of A'tolan Amis is based on the age organization. The Cultural Association of A'tolan Amis has a plan to have the A'tolan Amis develop fishing regulations by themselves. It would take a long time to form a system for managing the local marine area without any support from the government, ocean biologists, or even NGO volunteers. Therefore, the right to autonomy of the indigenous community is important for confirming the authority of the management and obtaining support from external resources.
