*2.1. Study Area*

The Limpopo River Basin part of Botswana is ecologically and economically significant to indigenous people and surrounding communities. Our case study, Bobirwa sub-district is situated between 28◦09 10 E to 29◦21 42 E and 22◦35 17 S to 21◦35 56 S and lies entirely within the Limpopo River Basin part of Botswana. The sub-district has an altitude ranging between 590 and 886 m making it the lowest part of Botswana hence has a network of channels that drain into the Limpopo River [8]. The sub-district boundary forms the national boundary with Zimbabwe to the north-east and South Africa to the south-east where the Limpopo River marks the boundary. Figure 1 below shows the location map of Bobirwa sub-district in Botswana, the villages and settlements in Bobirwa sub-district, as well as the location of Botswana in Africa. Although local ecosystems in the Limpopo Basin are essential to livelihoods and human well-being, they are greatly threatened by adverse climatic conditions as well as anthropogenic pressure. According to the 2011 National Population and Housing Census report, the population of Bobirwa sub-district was 71,936, comprising of 34,247 males and 37,689 females from 19,213 households with an average household size of 3.74 and a population density of 5.05 people/km<sup>2</sup> [27].

The study area is highly susceptible to droughts, erratic rainfall fluctuating well below 400 mm/year in most years [20]. The recent (2010–2016) average minimum and maximum winter temperatures were 7.1 ◦C and 24.5 ◦C while for summer they were 17.6 ◦C and 31.3 ◦C, respectively. Thus, the average winter and summer temperatures were 15.8 ◦C and 24.5 ◦C, respectively. However, summer temperatures have often exceeded 38 ◦C in the last 5 years with occurrence of heatwaves [20]. Average potential evapotranspiration of 1400 mm has been estimated in Bobirwa sub-district which reduces rainfall effectiveness. Bobirwa sub-district experiences frequent droughts (once every 2–4 years) and extreme weather events such as heatwaves, strong storms, strong winds, and flash floods; therefore, it is considered a semi-arid hotspot [20,28]. High variability in both rainfall amount and intensity and recurrence of extended droughts and dry spells is characteristic of the study area. Nonetheless, Bobirwa sub-district experiences a less severe climate than other parts of the country which allows crop and livestock production as well as supporting considerable biodiversity which supports local livelihoods through the delivery of several timber and non-timber forest products [8,29]. The main crops grown under rain-fed conditions are maize, sorghum, millet, cowpeas, groundnuts, round nuts, and watermelons. Subsistence livestock and poultry production, a mainstay of the local economy, is mainly characterized by the rearing of cattle, goats, and chickens under free-range [8].

**Figure 1.** Map of Bobirwa sub-district showing study villages.
