4.1.1. Entrance

The entrance is a transitional space from outside to inside or one room to another in a dwelling [34]. The front entrance door is the most noticeable demarcation between the public and private realm, where the inhabitants' culture or tradition has a strong impact [35]. The indoor privacy of a residence depends on how people enter it. Internal privacy is compromised if such a place has too many entrances [36]. Evans, Kalantari and Shepley identified that the chance of social contact is better when entering residential units that are adjacent or directly connected to significant pedestrian paths [8,37]. Graham et al. identified the invitation approach as the most frequently selected ambiance for an entryway, whereas other factors, such as sophistication, family, quiet and cosy, also impact human psychology [9]. Ochodo et al. mentioned that the materials (i.e., steel) used for the entry doors reduce occupants' stress and susceptibility compared to a wooden door, regarding safety issues. According to the study, inhabitants living in homes with wooden entrances experience anxiety and distress from attacks by thieves or robbers at night [38]. Oswald et al. also mentioned that entrance and accessibility impact occupants' behavior, significantly enhancing positive wellbeing and satisfaction for aged people and children in a family. From several studies, the researchers found that negative psychological symptoms increase among inhabitants because of poor accessibility, which is also noticeably connected to diverse characteristics of healthy aging [39]. The relationship between spatial and environmental design factors of the domestic entrance and occupants' response is illustrated in Figure 4.

**Figure 4.** Relationship between spatial and environmental factors of entrance. (Illustration: Author, based on literature).

#### 4.1.2. Living Room

In 1981, Alexander described the living room as the occupants' relaxation and entertainment space and traditionally, the largest area seen upon entering a dwelling [34]. The living room is primarily used to meet and share leisurely events with family members and others [12,40]. Hereafter, interactions and communication are the two main activities experienced in the living room, where comfort and relaxation are the occupants' primary preference [41]. Graham et al. also mapped relaxation, togetherness and comfort as the main factors in occupants' desired psychological ambiance in their living room [9].

Thus, indoor environmental quality and the spatial arrangemen<sup>t</sup> of furniture reflect the family's personality and preferences in the living room [42]. According to Saruwono et al., this space develops interaction opportunities between house owners and guests, where the room capacity, spatial organisation and furniture arrangemen<sup>t</sup> create different physiological responses among the users. Studies found that homeowners can control guests' communication boundaries through specific furniture layouts [42,43]. Comfort is vital for inhabitants' psychological and physical experience in their living room. Consequently, furniture choice and arrangemen<sup>t</sup> affect the occupants' diverse personal comfort levels and preferences and encourage social interaction [8]. As space is a primary point of emphasis in a domestic setting, the living room should also reflect safety for the users. Therefore, circulation by the flexible spatial arrangemen<sup>t</sup> of furniture is considered a priority [42].

In the living room, family members communicate with each other by doing various activities such as reading, watching television or just chatting [44]. Living room design is fundamental to supporting occupants' intimacy and comfort, with colors playing an essential role in stimulating mental wellbeing. Warm colors perform well in the living room. These colors evoke a sense of comfort and stimulate dialog [45]. As well as this, wall materials and lighting fixtures also have a strong correlation with occupants' overall satisfaction level in terms of spatial comfort issues [46].

Banaei et al. found that pleasure is an essential human factor for a living room, where room shape and size play a vital role in enhancing occupants' wellbeing [47]. According to the study, PAD correlation identified that daylight and nature-connectedness have a significant association with enhanced pleasure and arousal for the inhabitants. The author also found that the curved roof has a vital role in pleasure, affecting the inhabitant's emotional experiences [47]. Seemingly, studies also identified that using many curved lines may create stress. Flexible walls in living spaces enable individuals to create a friendly environment where people can perform activities and share their experiences with others according to their preferences [48].

Moreover, views of nature have a diverse effect on aesthetic value and the functional aspects. They provide cumulative influences and micro-restorative benefits to occupants' wellbeing in a shared or common space [49]. Built environmental design needs to be incorporated with nature and its components to improve this integrity [50]. In the housing context, it has also been proposed that sunlight and a view of nature, indoor potted plants and photos of plants or small landscapes enhance residents' sense of satisfaction and positive emotions [24,51,52]. The literature also identifies that highrise buildings with large windows may create discomfort, anxiety, stress and unhappiness among inhabitants [27].

Females in low and middle-income families, mainly involved in the indoor household and outdoor gardening, experience higher emotional wellbeing. However, in a real scenario, occupants with socioeconomic constraints often remain in compact living spaces and have limited ability to own indoor greenery [53]. By contrast, residents with higher incomes tend to reside in homes with more greenery [54]. Furthermore, several studies reported that room shape and size significantly impacted occupants' emotions in the smaller domestic setting during the quarantine period. Indoor gardening in a living space and maintenance can be one of the most effective enjoyable activities to mitigate social isolation's stressful and unpleasant impacts on emotional wellbeing in the COVID-19 situation [53].

Privacy is another essential human factor for male and female guests to maintain social aspects and safety for occupants and outcomes. Therefore, design interventions such as entrance door location, window size and position, room height, balconies and internal courtyard may help to achieve privacy in a living space [35]. Zanjani et al. elaborated on three essential factors, safety, aesthetics and memories, by evaluating participants' experiences to enhance relaxation feelings. Here, occupants' traditional values evoke security factors, the aesthetics value stimulates occupants' imagination and fosters individual personalization, and memories reflect familiar feelings. These factors may shape human experiences in a living environment [55]. The overall relationship is illustrated in Figure 5.

**Figure 5.** Relationship between spatial and environmental factors of living room. (Illustration: Author, based on the literature).

#### 4.1.3. Dining Room

Habitually eating together as a family has a startling impact on occupants' health and wellbeing. Family bonds become more vigorous and children adjust better and are less likely to use drugs where the family members share meals. Therefore, the eating environment needs to be stimulated by developing a more pleasant dining area (e.g., outside view, good air and daylight) that is more accessible from the kitchen and living room [56].

The dining room is another prominent space where inhabitants gather in a domestic setting. It is a space to accommodate the activities of eating as well as everyday casual things like chatting [45]. The dining space is a crucial element of design in a domestic setting. In general, the dining space acts as a transitional space between the unit's private and public zone and indicates the center of activities in a dwelling setting. As the center of activities, adequate space is necessary for proper circulation to enhance occupant satisfaction [57]. Graham et al. emphasises family togetherness as the prominent psychological ambiance for occupants in a dining space. According to the study, other psychological ambiances, such as sophistication, entertainment and relaxation are closely interrelated in this particular space to the enhancement of occupants' positive emotions [9].

According to Hendrassukma, the dining room's indoor color can arouse occupants' eating habits and inspire conversation between family members and other guests. The author identified that warm colors such as red could stimulate appetite, whereas yellow can increase starving [45]. In another experiment, Ritterfeld and Cupchik identified that a decorative room has a complex and stimulating phenomenon, whereas a sophisticated room is perceived as logical, contemporary, and relaxed [58]. This perception may help develop a dining space in a domestic setting to promote occupants' positive emotions.

Madsen explained that this space is the family's social gathering place, where family members all take a seat, have dinner and make conversation [44]. Relaxing, sitting comfortably and enjoyment are the most critical factors that enhance occupants' positive psychology. Madsen also described that, in a dining space, displaying photos and quotes promotes homemaking attitudes that contribute to occupants' emotions and comfort: relaxing, reading, watching, drinking, eating, etc. [44]. Studies also identified that a short depth of space and high-density results in mental distress and social withdrawal. Another factor found in the literature was the ceiling height, where a room with a higher ceiling was observed as more spacious than a room with a lower roof, leading to a lower sense of stress and crowding [8]. The spatial and environmental design relationship of the dining room is demonstrated in Figure 6.

**Figure 6.** Relationship between spatial and environmental factors of dining room. (Illustration: Author, based on the literature).
