*Article* **The Impact of High Glucose or Insulin Exposure on S100B Protein Levels, Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress and DNA Damage in Neuron-Like Cells**

**Adriana Kubis-Kubiak 1,\*, Benita Wiatrak <sup>2</sup> and Agnieszka Piwowar <sup>1</sup>**


**Abstract:** Alzheimer's disease (AD) is attracting considerable interest due to its increasing number of cases as a consequence of the aging of the global population. The mainstream concept of AD neuropathology based on pathological changes of amyloid *β* metabolism and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles is under criticism due to the failure of A*β*-targeting drug trials. Recent findings have shown that AD is a highly complex disease involving a broad range of clinical manifestations as well as cellular and biochemical disturbances. The past decade has seen a renewed importance of metabolic disturbances in disease-relevant early pathology with challenging areas in establishing the role of local micro-fluctuations in glucose concentrations and the impact of insulin on neuronal function. The role of the S100 protein family in this interplay remains unclear and is the aim of this research. Intracellularly the S100B protein has a protective effect on neurons against the toxic effects of glutamate and stimulates neurites outgrowth and neuronal survival. At high concentrations, it can induce apoptosis. The aim of our study was to extend current knowledge of the possible impact of hyper-glycemia and -insulinemia directly on neuronal S100B secretion and comparison to oxidative stress markers such as ROS, NO and DBSs levels. In this paper, we have shown that S100B secretion decreases in neurons cultured in a high-glucose or high-insulin medium, while levels in cell lysates are increased with statistical significance. Our findings demonstrate the strong toxic impact of energetic disturbances on neuronal metabolism and the potential neuroprotective role of S100B protein.

**Keywords:** Alzheimer's disease; hyperglycemia; hyperinsulinemia; S100B protein; oxidative stress
