2.2.4. COVID-19 Anxiety

This study is based on the anxiety classification proposed by Rundmo and Nordfjærn (2017) [26] and references relevant literature (e.g., [42]) to compile this COVID-19 anxiety scale. The items were answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) showed that the Kaiser–Meyer– Olkin (KMO) test value was 0.81 (χ<sup>2</sup> =1416.79, *p* < 0.001) [46], the factor loadings ranged from 0.66 to 0.87, and the total explained variance was 69.75%. The scale was divided into two aspects: COVID-19 worry (e.g., worry individuals themselves or family will become infected with COVID-19, α = 0.88) and perceived COVID-19 risk (e.g., a high probability of becoming infected with COVID-19, very likely to be exposed to people with suspected or possible cases of COVID-19, α = 0.91).

#### 2.2.5. Safety-Seeking Behavior

Safety-seeking behavior assessed the participants' degree of compliance with the government's recommendations on preventing COVID-19 infection, including avoiding gatherings, maintaining social distance from others, maintaining hygiene habits of frequent hand washing, and wearing masks in indoor public places. The items were developed with reference to related literature—e.g., [1,22]. Responses were given on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability and validity analysis showed that the factor loadings were from 0.72 to 0.87, the total explained variance was 65.93%, and Cronbach's α was 0.82.

### *2.3. Data Analysis*

Statistical Product and Service Solutions 22.0 (SPSS) (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, USA) software was used as a statistical tool in this study. A Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test was used to determine the sampling adequacy of data that were to be used for factor analysis [45]. The principal component analysis method with varimax rotation and eigenvalues >1 for EFA was adopted. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed to obtain a preliminary understanding of the respondents' demographic characteristics and their health-related conditions, attitudes, behaviors, and literacy. A repeated-measures ANOVA or paired t-test and a simple or multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data of this study.
