**2. Literature Review**

#### *2.1. ICT Use during the Pandemic*

Engagement with ICT during the COVID-19 pandemic has received mixed reporting. On the one hand, ICT facilitates the dissemination of information and facts about the disease while allowing people to access and search for related updates [13]. Given the evolving nature of the pandemic, the practical challenge is how to best transfer and deliver the latest information efficiently. Traditional methods of dissemination and communication, such as static websites and even email are considered slower than the use of news media and social media [14]. For example, the use of educational materials and infographics via social media has been viewed as a speedier way of information dissemination compared to traditional methods [13,15]. Additionally, large scale working from home and online schooling has become possible due to the use of ICT and other internet-enabled technologies [16–18]. Similarly, telehealth services can provide feasible on-going or new treatment options via online means during the pandemic [19,20]. Staying socially connected with families and friends and having access to virtual physical exercise materials and entertainment during stay-at-home orders are realized through ICT [20,21], as these strategies are recommended for mental health by the WHO [22].

However, the use of ICT can also be problematic. Among children and university students, excessive screen time and limited outdoor activities during the pandemic have potential worrisome outcomes in relation to myopia [23], sedentary behaviors [24], disrupted sleep routines [25], and reduced physical activity [26], just to name a few. Adults also report worse depression, loneliness, and stress being associated with increased screen time and reduced physical activity [27]. These lifestyle changes during the pandemic have been linked to poor mental health [27], thus confirming the established association between excessive screen time and negative mental health outcomes from pre-pandemic times [28,29]. Another downside of ICT use is related to the lack of in-person social interactions. Even for people who do not live alone, they may still feel lonely if their contact with others, such

as through the means of ICT during quarantines, does not provide a sufficient sense of social connectedness [30]. In addition, with the amount of information about COVID-19 that is available through various ICT channels, some people have expressed feelings of information overload and fatigue [31,32], while, at the same time, having feelings of anxiety and uncertainty about the future and especially about how the pandemic will end [33].

#### *2.2. Social Connectedness during the Pandemic*

One consequence of COVID-19 and the associated social-distancing measures has been accompanied by psychosocial implications, including increased risk of social isolation and loneliness [30]. Social isolation—the objective lack of interactions with others or the wider community [34]—even as short as 10 days, can have negative long-term effects three years later [35]. Loneliness—the subjective feeling of the lack of social networks or companions [34]—can be triggered by social isolation, or vice versa [36]. Prolonged social isolation and feelings of loneliness, characterized by reduced social connections and contact, have been linked to reduced psychological and physiological functioning and increased morbidity and mortality [37,38]. Therefore, public health agencies and clinicians emphasize the importance of maintaining social contact during this pandemic for the purpose of improving feelings of social connectedness and decreasing loneliness [30].

Psychoactive substance use and other reinforcing behaviors such as video gaming, TV watching, using social media, gambling, and surfing the internet are often used to reduce anxiety and depression [10], but increased ICT consumption can also lead to negative health outcomes, as have been observed during COVID-19 [27,39]. For example, one study investigated the impact of COVID-19 on online gambling during the week of April 21st, 2020 and found that individuals with higher levels of anxiety and depression were more likely to have gambled than individuals with no symptoms [40]. Among a sample of adolescents and young adults across several countries, COVID-related worries, compulsive internet use, social media use, and gaming addiction predicted scores of escapism, depression, and loneliness [41]. A study conducted during June 2020 found that college students had excessive use of social networking sites and lack of personal control to disengage themselves from those sites [42]; this tendency was also associated with the use of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and sedative without a doctor's prescription. Another study conducted in March and April 2020 in the U.S. suggested that exposure to COVID-19 information, via Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook, and increased alcohol use in March contributed to more frequent alcohol consumption in April, especially those working or studying from home [43]. These empirical studies suggest that even though ICT provides a means of social connection with one's social networks and the wider community, moderate and responsible use is important in maintaining a healthy approach to it.

Personality traits have also been linked to COVID-19 stress, coping, and concerns. Extraverts—compared to introverts—tend to have larger social network sizes [44] and these network connections can serve as a buffer during the pandemic [45]. Arguably, extraverts may suffer more due to COVID-19 travel bans and restrictions on social gatherings. An online study conducted in late March and early April 2020 across 47 countries investigated the associations among the level of stringency of safety measures, extraversion, and depression [46]: Results showed that, after controlling for country-level factors, introverts were doing better in terms of depressive symptoms when facing stringent social-distancing measures, but the stringent measures only had limited, non-significant effects on extraverts' depressive symptoms. Other aspects of personality traits were also examined: using an adult sample collected in late March 2020 from the U.S., individuals higher on neuroticism and lower on conscientiousness had more pandemic-related concerns, especially healthrelated concerns; however, individuals higher on neuroticism and extraversion had more relationship-related concerns [47]. Higher conscientiousness was associated with more precautious behaviors (such as hand washing) to avoid contracting COVID-19 but fewer preparatory behaviors (such as buying face masks). However, older individuals who were higher on conscientiousness had more preparatory behaviors. In terms of estimates of

the pandemic duration, individuals higher on neuroticism had a more negative feeling about the pandemic (i.e., longer duration), but individuals higher on extraversion and conscientiousness had more optimistic estimates [47]. These findings shed some light on the associations between personality traits and behaviors related to COVID-19; however, other aspects of behavioral and psychosocial responses, such as social connectedness in the context of ICT use and its relation to personality, have not been widely explored.

ICT plays an important role in helping people adapt to restrictions on in-person gatherings. Many organizations in the public, private, and philanthropic sectors have developed messaging and outreach programs to specifically promote social connections and reduce loneliness via emails, websites, or smart phone applications. ICT serves as communication channels and social interaction media between sources of information and receivers. Although online interactions—both on the giving and the receiving ends can foster a sense of connection, there is conflicting evidence about the role ICT plays in enhancing the feeling of social connectedness during the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper was designed to further investigate this open question.
