3.3.2. Soil Salinity and Erosion

Through using the UNESCO World Soil Map (1970–1980), FAO estimated that global total saline lands are 397 million hectares, and 38.7 (2%) and 195.1 (6.3%) million hectares have been located in Africa and Asia, respectively [110]. As a rising concern that limits sustainable agricultural production, soil salinity encompasses the large areas of the Central Plateau, southern coastal plains, and Khuzestan in Iran (Figure 11) [111]. From 6.8 million hectares of saline agricultural land, 4.3 million hectares are saline, and approximately 2.5 million hectares have other restrictions such as soil erosion and groundwater scarcity. *Sustainability* **2021**, *13*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19 million hectares of saline agricultural land, 4.3 million hectares are saline, and approximately 2.5 million hectares have other restrictions such as soil erosion and groundwater scarcity.

**Figure 11.** Map of saline soils in Iran; source [112].

**Figure 11.** Map of saline soils in Iran; source [112]. Anthropogenic activities and land-use change also lead to soil erosion, which degrades 20–30 billion tons of soil per year and severely decreases soil productivity; hence, extreme soil erosion has been predicted for developing regions such as Southeast Asia, South America, and sub-Saharan Africa [113]. In a study by Mosaffaie and Talebi [114], water erosion using the EPM model was estimated at 975 million tons per year, and the total volume of erosion sediment was also estimated at 129 million tons in Iran. Hence, Anthropogenic activities and land-use change also lead to soil erosion, which degrades 20–30 billion tons of soil per year and severely decreases soil productivity; hence, extreme soil erosion has been predicted for developing regions such as Southeast Asia, South America, and sub-Saharan Africa [113]. In a study by Mosaffaie and Talebi [114], water erosion using the EPM model was estimated at 975 million tons per year, and the total volume of erosion sediment was also estimated at 129 million tons in Iran. Hence, limited soil productivity of farmlands in Iran limits crops production, and Figure 12 shows that extensive areas of lands of this country cannot perform as arable lands, due to soil erosion or specific topography traits.

limited soil productivity of farmlands in Iran limits crops production, and Figure 12 shows that extensive areas of lands of this country cannot perform as arable lands, due to

soil erosion or specific topography traits.

**Figure 12.** Soil suitability map of lands of Iran for cultivation; source: [115]. **Figure 12.** Soil suitability map of lands of Iran for cultivation; source: [115].

According to the calculations of Kohneshahri and Sadeghi [116], economic losses of soil erosion were 31% of the agriculture sector value-added in 2000. Hence, annual loss by soil erosion has been estimated at \$56 billion in Iran [117]. Water erosion caused by flooding led to a 100-billion-dollar loss in 2019 because the floods in the three areas of Dez, Karun, and Karkheh were about 12 thousand billion cubic meters, which led to the erosion of 3.5 billion tons of soil [118]. Water erosion also removes 23–42 and 14.6–26.4 million tons of nitrogen and phosphorus from farmlands, and their costs are \$1.45 and \$5.26 per kilogram; accordingly, the financial losses are \$33–60 and \$77–140 billion for wasted nitrogen and phosphorus per year [119]. A lack of a strategic plan and insufficient According to the calculations of Kohneshahri and Sadeghi [116], economic losses of soil erosion were 31% of the agriculture sector value-added in 2000. Hence, annual loss by soil erosion has been estimated at \$56 billion in Iran [117]. Water erosion caused by flooding led to a 100-billion-dollar loss in 2019 because the floods in the three areas of Dez, Karun, and Karkheh were about 12 thousand billion cubic meters, which led to the erosion of 3.5 billion tons of soil [118]. Water erosion also removes 23–42 and 14.6–26.4 million tons of nitrogen and phosphorus from farmlands, and their costs are \$1.45 and \$5.26 per kilogram; accordingly, the financial losses are \$33–60 and \$77–140 billion for wasted nitrogen and phosphorus per year [119]. A lack of a strategic plan and insufficient knowledge about the consequences of soil salinity and erosion are the critical challenges in Iran [120]; consequently, soil erosion and salinity threaten sustainable agricultural production by reducing land fertility and crop productivity.

### knowledge about the consequences of soil salinity and erosion are the critical challenges 3.3.3. Deforestation and Land-Use Change

in Iran [120]; consequently, soil erosion and salinity threaten sustainable agricultural production by reducing land fertility and crop productivity. 3.3.3. Deforestation and Land-Use Change According to a study by Mirakhor-Lou and Akhavan [121], the deforestation rate is 0.74% per year in northern Iran, and the area of Hyrcanian forests in the three provinces of Gilan, Golestan, and Mazandaran was 1,811,788 hectares in 2004, and in 2016, it was estimated at 1,650,498 hectares. Forests in the northern regions of Iran (Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan provinces) have been decreased by 9% between 2004 and 2016 due to land-use change. Higher than 86 million hectares (52%) of Iran's lands are pastures, which According to a study by Mirakhor-Lou and Akhavan [121], the deforestation rate is 0.74% per year in northern Iran, and the area of Hyrcanian forests in the three provinces of Gilan, Golestan, and Mazandaran was 1,811,788 hectares in 2004, and in 2016, it was estimated at 1,650,498 hectares. Forests in the northern regions of Iran (Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan provinces) have been decreased by 9% between 2004 and 2016 due to land-use change. Higher than 86 million hectares (52%) of Iran's lands are pastures, which contain more than 7000 plant species, and the livelihood of about 916,000 rural and nomadic households depends on the use of rangelands. The situation of Iran's rangelands is also unfavorable, and a decreasing trend has been observed in Figure 13; accordingly, SCI shows that the total area of Iran's rangelands has been reduced between 2002 to 2012 [122], and the reduction in rangelands vegetation will be extreme if the overuse of rangelands for livestock grazing increases due to the high price of livestock fodder.

contain more than 7000 plant species, and the livelihood of about 916,000 rural and nomadic households depends on the use of rangelands. The situation of Iran's rangelands is

shows that the total area of Iran's rangelands has been reduced between 2002 to 2012 [122], and the reduction in rangelands vegetation will be extreme if the overuse of rangelands

for livestock grazing increases due to the high price of livestock fodder.

**Figure 13.** Reducing rangelands (dense, semi-dense, and low) in Iran from 2002 to 2012, data source: [121]. **Figure 13.** Reducing rangelands (dense, semi-dense, and low) in Iran from 2002 to 2012, data source: [121].

### 3.3.4. Natural Disasters 3.3.4. Natural Disasters

Sudden and irregular rainfall is a significant climatic train that creates big floods in Iran, and the difference between the average rainfall in the water year 2018–2019 and 2017–2018 was 46–181%, which led to severe floods in the provinces of Golestan, Lorestan, and Khuzestan in 2019 [123]. In addition to floods, locust attacks also cause significant damage to the agricultural sector. Desert locusts (*Schistocerca gregaria*) are found in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa and have destructive effects on crop yields. According to the Iran Agriculture Commission of the Parliament, this crisis caused a ten billion Rial (370 million US dollar) financial loss, in the southern provinces of Iran, in 2020 [124]. A similar locust attack in April 2012 affected the plantation in southern Indian Ocean Island, and FAO estimated that four million people were at risk of food insecurity in rural Madagascar in June-July 2013 [125]. The locusts have caused enormous damage in Ethiopia and Somalia because a small group of 80 million locusts can destroy the share food of 35,000 people per day and seriously threaten food security. This crisis has shocked the food supply chain of 23 countries in 2020 [126]. The cost of control for locusts increased from \$1 million to \$100 million in West Africa in 2003. A joint assessment by the Ethiopian government and FAO shows an outbreak of locusts destroyed 356,286 metric grains, destroying 197,163 hectares of crops and 1.3 million hectares of pastures. Then, COVID-19 Sudden and irregular rainfall is a significant climatic train that creates big floods in Iran, and the difference between the average rainfall in the water year 2018–2019 and 2017– 2018 was 46–181%, which led to severe floods in the provinces of Golestan, Lorestan, and Khuzestan in 2019 [123]. In addition to floods, locust attacks also cause significant damage to the agricultural sector. Desert locusts (*Schistocerca gregaria*) are found in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa and have destructive effects on crop yields. According to the Iran Agriculture Commission of the Parliament, this crisis caused a ten billion Rial (370 million US dollar) financial loss, in the southern provinces of Iran, in 2020 [124]. A similar locust attack in April 2012 affected the plantation in southern Indian Ocean Island, and FAO estimated that four million people were at risk of food insecurity in rural Madagascar in June-July 2013 [125]. The locusts have caused enormous damage in Ethiopia and Somalia because a small group of 80 million locusts can destroy the share food of 35,000 people per day and seriously threaten food security. This crisis has shocked the food supply chain of 23 countries in 2020 [126]. The cost of control for locusts increased from \$1 million to \$100 million in West Africa in 2003. A joint assessment by the Ethiopian government and FAO shows an outbreak of locusts destroyed 356,286 metric grains, destroying 197,163 hectares of crops and 1.3 million hectares of pastures. Then, COVID-19 exacerbated the locust crisis by disrupting the supply chain of pesticides [127], and Northern Somalia and asymptotic regions of eastern Ethiopia and borders of Djibouti, Pakistan, India, Sudan, and Oman were at a high risk of locust outbreaks [128].

### exacerbated the locust crisis by disrupting the supply chain of pesticides [127], and North-**4. Conclusions and Recommendations**

ern Somalia and asymptotic regions of eastern Ethiopia and borders of Djibouti, Pakistan, India, Sudan, and Oman were at a high risk of locust outbreaks [128]. **4. Conclusions and Recommendations**  Along with the appearance of the pandemic in 2020, the economic recession led to food insecurity in many countries due to financial loss and food prices enhancement. Among the developing countries, Iran has been affected by macroeconomic problems such as inflation and high currency exchange rate. Iran's per capita income significantly decreased, and rising inflation and the dollar exchange rate increased prices of various foods and beverages due to the rise in production costs in recent years and during the pandemic. Food shortages and their price enhancement endangered food security directly, and oversupply reduced some product prices, leading to financial losses for producers and farmers, ultimately threatening food security. Besides the complex economic effects of the pandemic, ecological constraints such as a water crisis, salinity, extreme soil Along with the appearance of the pandemic in 2020, the economic recession led to food insecurity in many countries due to financial loss and food prices enhancement. Among the developing countries, Iran has been affected by macroeconomic problems such as inflation and high currency exchange rate. Iran's per capita income significantly decreased, and rising inflation and the dollar exchange rate increased prices of various foods and beverages due to the rise in production costs in recent years and during the pandemic. Food shortages and their price enhancement endangered food security directly, and oversupply reduced some product prices, leading to financial losses for producers and farmers, ultimately threatening food security. Besides the complex economic effects of the pandemic, ecological constraints such as a water crisis, salinity, extreme soil erosion, deforestation, and natural disasters have severe adverse consequences on food security in Iran. Hence, COVID-19 causes direct and indirect damages and interruptions to the agriculture sector by limiting the production of some crops and disregarding environmental protection policies, due to economic losses, because stable ecological problems such as salinity and soil erosion can threaten sustainable agricultural production in the future. In response to the main hypotheses of this study, it can be demonstrated that consequences of the COVID-19 and

security in Iran. Hence, COVID-19 causes direct and indirect damages and interruptions to the agriculture sector by limiting the production of some crops and disregarding environmental protection policies, due to economic losses, because stable ecological problems such as salinity and soil erosion can threaten sustainable agricultural production in the future. In response to the main hypotheses of this study, it can be demonstrated that con-

ecological constraints have synergistic impacts. The enormous financial loss can pause support for small-scale farming and agricultural research projects. Therefore, governments must improve food security and environmental health through promoting sustainable agriculture measures and eco-friendly policies. It is necessary to implement sustainable agriculture policies during the COVID-19 outbreak period in Iran, and other countries, by considering ecological constraints. It should be highlighted that, while sustainable agricultural development can provide sufficient nutritious food, protect environmental health, and presumably support mitigate the financial losses in the post-COVID-19 crisis, it is still difficult to improve the economic consequences of pandemics. Therefore, future studies may involve investigating strategies that support the agricultural sector to endure the long-term economic consequences in the post-pandemic and maintaining food security by means of developing agroecology training courses, accelerating agricultural projects via sustainable and eco-friendly approaches, and assisting small-scale farming projects by providing site-specific solutions, automated instruments, and new breeds of seeds and plants to compensate for the drought and salinity problems.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.K.R. and R.R.S.; methodology, A.K.R. and R.R.S.; software, R.R.S.; validation, R.R.S., S.K.B. and M.S.; formal analysis, R.R.S. and S.K.B.; investigation, A.K.R. and R.R.S.; resources, R.R.S., S.K.B. and M.S.; data curation, A.K.R. and H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.R. and R.R.S.; writing—review and editing, A.K.R., R.R.S., H.A., S.K.B. and M.S.; visualization, A.K.R. and R.R.S.; supervision, R.R.S. and H.A.; project administration, R.R.S., H.A.; funding acquisition, S.K.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Data Availability Statement:** Data is contained within the article.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to acknowledge the editorial support from Adaptive AgroTech Consultancy Network, and technical assistant from Benjamin Mahns of the Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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