2.6.1. Comparing *G. duodenalis* Negative/Ever Positive

Overall, 55% of individuals who tested positive for *G. duodenalis* were female, the median age was 10 years old, with 49% <10 years old. A total of 55% were from tribe 1, followed by 15% from tribe 5. The most frequent clinical signs were normal stool appearance (92%), abdominal pain (53%), and stool consistency type 2 (45%). Overall, 58% did not report hand washing, 84% reported eating with hands, and 18% did not report washing fresh produce. Sanitation was predominantly defecation in the woods (70%) and open defecation near households (21.7%). Microscopy examination also revealed that 53% of individuals were coinfected with *Endolimax nana*, 48% with *Entamoeba coli*, 18% with *Chilomastix mesnili*, 16% with *Ancylostoma* spp., and 11% with *Blastocystis* sp.

Children under <15 years old reported more frequently vomiting, abdominal pain, and abnormal (mucous, bloody, mucous-bloody) faecal appearance compared to adults. However, only differences in abdominal pain appeared significant (Chi-squared test, *p* = 0.016). There were no differences in age or symptoms between the two assemblages A and B (Chi-squared test: age group, *p* = 0.552; faecal consistency, *p* = 0.732; abdominal pain, *p* = 1; vomit, *p* = 0,953).

In univariable analysis, hand washing, older age, tribes 2–4, coinfection with *E. coli*, *E. nana*, and *Iodamoeba* were negatively associated with *G. duodenalis*, while tribe 5, faecal consistency 4, open defecation, and the number of samples were positively associated with *G. duodenalis* (Table 8). Regarding the public health features and symptoms, the multivariable model retained the number of samples, age group, tribe, faecal consistency, faecal appearance, and washing fresh produce. Older age groups had a protective effect (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.40, 95% CI: 0.20–0.81 in 10–14 years old, and aOR = 0.20 95%, CI: 0.11–0.39 in ≥15 years old, respectively), as tribes 2–3 compared to tribe 1 (aOR = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.24–0.85, aOR = 0.43, 95% CI: 0.21–0.85, aOR = 0.31, 95% CI: 0.14–0.63, respectively). The number of samples was positively associated with higher odds of a *G. duodenalis*positive result (aOR = 1.46, 95% CI: 1.18–1.81), as washing fresh produce (aOR = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.12–3.44) and faecal consistency type 4 (aOR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.10–3.37) (Table 9). None of the other pathogens considered was found significantly associated with *G. duodenalis* in the multivariable model with coinfections.


**Table 8.** Univariable analysis. Crude association between *G. duodenalis* infections and variables of interest. *p*-values marked in bold indicate numbers that are significant on the 95% confidence limit (CI).


**Table 8.** *Cont.*


**Table 8.** *Cont.*


**Table 8.** *Cont.*

<sup>1</sup> Statistics presented: *n* (%). <sup>2</sup> OR, crude odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; NA, not applicable.

**Table 9.** Multivariable analysis comparing *G. duodenalis*-negative results versus *G. duodenalis* ever positive results. *p*-values marked in bold indicate numbers that are significant on the 95% confidence limit (CI).


<sup>1</sup> aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval. *n* = 559 (removing five observations with missing values).
