*3.2. Locating Buried Monuments*

Geophysical prospecting aims to detect and map concealed antiquities and has been employed in the archaeological practice since the end of the Second World War.

Geophysical prospection has been also employed in non-conventional manners to tackle specific archaeological problems. Such problems might be, for example, the cases of locating tombs under tumuli embankments, assessing the moisture content in walls, the depth of fractures in sculptures, exploring the space behind walls, mapping the waterways along which the water drains out or in monuments, investigating in urban environment, etc. Relatively recently, the potential of this kind of operations has been the subject of numerous papers. However, many of these operations require a great amount of expertise and innovation [37,45–48].

Further, surface magnetic susceptibility may have been mapped, or electromagnetic data may have been collected. Additionally, aerial and satellite images might be available for the particular site, plus lidar images and accurate digital elevation models (DTM) [49,50].

Each one of the aforementioned methods is sensitive to different physical properties. Presumably, the combination of the information that each method provides could yield much better constrains in identifying, mapping and finally documenting the archaeological targets.

Geophysical prospecting at archaeological sites contributes to the sustainable development of specific provinces and areas. In particular, wide areas can be easily explored by (archaeo-) geophysical prospection, while under favourable conditions this approach may produce ground or underwater views of the buried ancient vestiges. Hence the following digs focus on pointed targets; as a result of saving capital, time, and effort. Accordingly, areas can be evaluated and included in local or regional development planning.

An archaeological dig may be shown in a holistic manner making use of cyber-archaeology, exhibiting the unearthed parts and displaying the parts that still reside underground in plates, leaflets, movies, etc.

The non-evasive archaeo-geophysical surveys are most significant in unearthing buried antiquities and offer a cultural attraction and development. It contributes a great deal to sustainability. Hidden antiquities are revealed. Many projects have been implemented where geophysical investigations have helped to exhibit new archaeological sites, either underground or under the sea, and restrict illicit excavations and trafficking of antiquities, and protecting at-risk antiquities from either public works or environmental risks.

There exist a number of examples from all over the world, especially from countries with a rich cultural heritage. The numerous archaeo-geophysical prospection (electrical, magnetic, georadar, remote sensing satellite imaging, and seismic sounding) first detect the buried target, which was followed by archaeological excavation, a study of the finds, and conservation and restoration tasks, to finally manage the opening the archaeological site and associated museum to the public, acquiring a sustainable character, such as in Italy with a significant project in South Etruria by the British School in Rome and Italian authorities (http://www.bsr.ac.uk/research/archaeology/completed-projects/ tiber-valley-project/south-etruria-survey) [51], and in Egypt, China, Turkey and other parts of the world [52].

Reports of a number of examples exist from the Aegean region (Greece) that geophysical investigations have driven the archaeological investigations to a surgical kind of excavation and, at the same time, contributed to the promotion of the sites and the general prominence of them. Just to mention some of them, next to the Neolithic settlement of Dimini, integrated geophysical approaches (magnetic, soil resistance, electromagnetic techniques) were responsible for mapping the residues of two large monumental megaron-type compartments that were identified with the

foundations of the Mycenaean palace that was subsequently excavated fully and was identified with the settlement of Iolkos in Thessaly, Greece, the home of Homeric King and hero Achilles. Today, it is accessible to visitors and it is one of the main archaeological attractions of the region [53]. Similar kinds of investigations with a subsequent steady increase of visitors have been carried out in the area of the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Kalaureia on Poros island. The subsequent excavations by the Swedish Institute at Athens revealed a number of structural remains that were associated with the daily activities of the site [54,55]. On Therasia island, despite its remote location and the hardness of the volcanic environments, geophysical measurements at the monastery of Koimisi and Orycheia produced substantial evidence related to the habitation of the island during the Early and Middle Cycladic periods (and most probably abandoned before the large volcanic eruption), as it was confirmed from the excavations that followed [56]. Even more examples can be presented for such cases where the geophysical survey has been able to contribute not only to the promotion of the sites, but also to their sustainability and their openness to the wider public since they have been excavated and offered to the visitors (the ancient Greek city of Sikyon [57]; the site of Bedenaki-Walls of Venetian Herakleio [58]; and the Minoan site of Sissi in Eastern Crete [59].

The cemetery of the Roman Era of Europos, Northern Greece, comprises another example. It is situated at the foothill of a topographic table. In fact, the resistance prospecting at this particular area yielded the distribution of resistances displayed in Figure 5a [37]. Its interpretation is straightforward since pronounced high resistivity anomalies are surrounded by a rather uniform low resistivity environment. The "twin probe" electrode arrangement was used having the roving electrodes 1 m apart, one form the other, and 1 and 2 m, in line and cross line spacing, respectively. Therefore, it was a low-resolution survey aiming only to detect and map the position and the areal extent of large monumental tombs. Presumably, each one of the well-defined in space high resistance anomalies has been caused by such a concealed structure. On the other hand, the relatively sizeable blurred anomaly at the west side of the image was attributed to a hidden gravel deposition. In fact, after the excavations, the aforementioned interpretation proved true in all its predictions.

**Figure 5.** (**a**) Resistivity prospecting of the Roman era Europos site exhibited the distribution of iso-resistances and pseudo-colors displayed, where high resistivity anomalies are surrounded by a rather uniform low resistivity environment [37]; (**b**) The site as an archaeological park. The plate shown introduces the visitors to the whole adventure to unearth and promote the monuments, from the geophysical image to the final stages of designing the shelters and organize the accessibility and promotion of the site where revealed tombs and architectural remains are now a tourist attraction to visitors (© G. Tsokas pers. comm., 2019).

The geophysical investigations guided the excavations (headed by archaeologist Dr. Thomais Savvopoulou) to the revelation of many monumental tombs, unfortunately all of them almost completely looted. However, the area was recreated to an excellent archaeological park (Figure 5b) contributing to the development of the particular province of the Greek State.

Why, after all, is geophysical prospection useful? It reveals hidden antiquities from a tomb to a city and others, by discovering buried ancient relics, it results to the creation of archaeological parks, museum exposition, other cultural activities, and in the updating of historical information with digital technology, all of which contribute to the local sustainable market. The ability to provide reliable images of the subterranean antiquities renders geophysical prospecting as an invaluable tool for the archaeological research, cultural heritage planning. Consequently, by assisting the archaeological research and promotion of monuments, which in addition, are studied by other archaeometrical methods, all is a decisive factor in the cultural tourism and economic growth.

#### *3.3. Cyber-Archaeology and Bio-Archaeological Issues*

The novel technologies and instrumentation development have achieved a goal: use of "Big Data", the new quantitative modelling and the results from aDNA, strontium and other isotopes and related scientific methods, have produced a new concept in contemporary archaeology [18,60,61].

The new technologies indeed alter our lives and the way in which we perceive it beyond the imaginable. This further ulterior over is the point in space-time in which coalition of science, technology, and art openly combined for the 3rd Cultural Revolution, and for environmentally sustainable abundance. However, this time, the "beyond" not only explores the dynamic 3D screen, it moves on from the bits to the atoms and incorporates 3D-printing and digital cloud-distribution which combined to relevant scanning or photographic technologies create a virtual environment as a real world. We are entering the central source for current and emerging trends in cultural heritage informatics with new disciplines, sub-disciplines and terminology to emerge. Virtual, cyber-archaeology, and cultural heritage to cyber-archaeometry are matters that have been recently tackled [18,62].

The virtual archaeology case studies, over the world, as a result of advanced technology emerging from computer sciences, however, stress the naturalistic methodology, and challenges digital reconstructions and serious games. There may also be provocation and harassment and the emergence of fundamental hermeneutical questions which serve as the basis of a synoptic and synthetic philosophy that combines art and science corresponding to classical techne, logos, and ethos.

The need for objective methodologies point out the need of hyper-taxonomies for interpreting the past, leading computing archaeology to an objective "scientific" interpretation [63–65].

The VR, 3D modelling and metadata, serious gaming, digital 3D reconstructions of bioarchaeological and cyber-archaeology data, all build a virtual collection and dataset and enrich the cultural heritage repertoire via virtual museums and make such archaeological heritage accessible to the public [64,66]. Hence, "*the websites of museums seem far more reluctant to display the dead online* ... *It might also relate to the fear of de-contextualising human remains*" [67].

Increasingly, institutions are also understanding that much of their public engagement will now take place digitally, with platforms acting as a "*medium through which information is published or exchanged*" [68] though bio-archaeological data are contrasted with a critical review of current ethical and technical guidelines, indicating potentially ethically compromising practices, particularly the lack of contextualising metadata for some models [69].

### *3.4. The Antikythera Mechanism*

The Antikythera mechanism is the world's first analogical computer, used by ancient Greeks to chart the movement of the sun, moon and planets, predict lunar and solar eclipses and even signal the next Olympic Games and bearing inscriptions [70] (Figure 6).

**Figure 6.** Antikythera mechanism, one of the pieces displayed in Athens Archaeological Museum, and a reconstruction of back dials ((**a**): National Archaeological Museum, Athens, photographer: Kostas Xenikakis, copyright Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports/Archaeological Receipts Fund; (**b**): Model constructed by John Gleave, according to Derek de Solla Price [71,72]).

The 2000-year-old astronomical calculator is a small size metal device. The detailed X-ray tomography imaging of the interior revealed at least 30 meshing bronze gears, was used for the determination of time, and included a user's guide of operation; new data proved its use as an astronomical device, and a 3D reconstruction has been made. Despite its poor condition, crammed insides, obscured by corrosion, it showed traces of technology that appear utterly modern: gears with neat triangular teeth (just like the inside of a clock) and a ring divided into degrees. It is a unique discovery from antiquity, and beyond doubt the only sophisticated, unparalleled object appears again for more than a thousand years. In particular, it calculated the prediction of eclipses, recorded the zodiac and the Egyptian and Greek Calendars, the solar-lunar calendar, the 19-year Cycle of Meton, the Saros cycle or exeligmos, Greek inscriptions, markings of astronomical symbols on discs, and the determination of major cultural events (Olympia, Pythia etc.), and cycles of 19, 76, 18+, and 54+ years [73–76].

The management of the revealed data and use of modern archaeometrical techniques had a respectful impact of increased visits in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Moreover, a review of the published news in the media have shown a social interest and awareness, contributed to the cultural tourism, added to the international visibility-cultural diplomacy, become a paradigm of true interdisciplinarity, with the 3D reconstruction to provide an attraction to visitors, especially students (Table 1).


**Table 1.** Visits in the national archaeological Museum of Athens, 6 April 2012–28 April 2013. For 2012–2014 the total visitors were 800,000.

#### *3.5. The Ice Man "Otzi" in the Alps*

The ice man 'Otzi' (this name refers to the discovery site in the Ötztal Valley in the Alps) is a glacier mummy from the Early Bronze age (3300–3100 B.C.) Central European Alps and has been preserved to the present day. He was discovered accidentally by hikers in 1991, together with his clothing and equipment, on the Schnalstal/Val Senales Valley glacier and has been the subject of intensive research. Ötzi and his artefacts have been exhibited at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy since 1998. Following a thorough archaeometrical research the mummy is stored in a specially devised cold cell—a glass vitrine with controlled temperature (−6 ◦C) and humidity (98%) at glacier-like conditions. Ötzi's numerous pieces of equipment and clothing have been painstakingly restored. The magnificent work of conservation, exposition, and reconstruction of this mummy has been initiated by the holistic archaeometric contribution. Techniques applied and materials measured include: (a) radiocarbon (14C) dating of clothing, wooden bow, and bone [77,78]; (b) X-ray flourescence (XRF) of hair discovering traces of copper and arsenic, implying his involvement in early pyrotechnology of smelting copper [79]; (c) X -ray radiography of his whole body discovering the fatal flint arrow in his left back shoulder, and other injuries [80,81]; (d) bio-archaeology used to decoding the Iceman's genetic make-up through aDNA, as well as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and strontium isotopic analysis in his teeth and bones proved his southern of Alps (Italy) origin, while he had eaten three meals during the last day or so, including a final meal about two hours before he was killed. Methods of thermal ionization (TIMS), inductively-coupled plasma (ICP-MS) and gas mass spectrometry included isotope ratios of 18O/16O (δ18O), 87Sr/86Sr, and 206Pb/204Pb, in order to reveal the Iceman's origin and migration behaviour. Analysed samples include tooth enamel, bones, and contents of his intestine, which all represent different ontogenetic (developmental) stages [80,82–85]; (e) palynology for pollen contained within the foods consumed by Ötzi, along with other palaeopathology evidence, colleagues were able to reconstruct his hectic itinerary in the hours before he died and defined the late spring/early summer death incident as well as the archaeobotanical environment [86]' and (f) virtual reconstruction of the Ice Man Otzi and his equipment, showing how he was equipped for the harsh temperatures of the high mountains and his clothing, in a reconstruction [87].

The impact to cultural tourism through increased number of visitors in south Tyrolo, and especially the Otzi museum, was perceptible (Figure 7). The museum attracts a variety of groups: school groups, the local population, visitors from further afield and from abroad. Ötzi and the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology represent the main cultural destination in adverts promoting tourism in South Tyrol abroad, attracting a great many visitors and are, therefore, a not insignificant economic factor. A large number of them have not come to the regional capital for a holiday, but are day-trippers to Bozen-Bolzano, enjoying a perfect mix of sightseeing, shopping and local specialties, and of course to visit Ötzi in the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology. This mixture of activities has an economic ripple effect: South Tyrol scores as a holiday destination with its attractive museums, and the many people who come to Bozen-Bolzano have a positive influence on the creation of added value and on the tourist facilities and services on offer. Since its opening on 28 March 1998, the museum has been visited by 5 million people; in 2017 by 286,972 visitors [88].

**Figure 7.** Trend of visitors per year from 1998 (opening) to 2017 ([89]. The peaks at 2000 and 2011 denote significant news information in the previous or running year from published data derived from more archaeometrical analysis of Otzi and properly disseminated through multimedia. Since 1998 (opening) it attracts 250,000 visitors/year. From a financial point of view, the museum has revenues from tickets sales, merchandising, sponsors, and publishing (see also [90]).
