**4. Discussion**

Our research provided the evidence that habitat type significantly affects both forager abundance and colony weight of honey bees as well as stingless bees in Indonesia. The lowest forager abundance and colony weight was shown in agricultural areas, which indicated that agricultural areas had a negative effect on bees. Research by [26] showed that bee species have distinct preferences for different plant communities, and their abundance is related to the abundance of their host plants. Agricultural areas that are dominated by certain crop plants might affect the fitness and population growth of bees. This is due to plant diversity and is a key driver of bee fitness. Bees were found to be fitter and their populations grew faster in more florally diverse environments because of a continuous supply of food resources [27].

Landscape diversity also influences the growth and reproduction of honey bees, besides the availability of pollen in agricultural landscapes. For instance, *A. mellifera* compensated for lower landscape diversity by increasing their pollen foraging range in order to maintain pollen amounts and diversity [28]. This indicates the importance of agri-environmental schemes to support pollinators and not just the plant diversity and pollen availability. In Malang, *A. mellifera* is handled by beekeepers following "migratory management", which causes bees undue stress. In order to ease access to food source, beekeepers move the hives to flowering areas. However, this managemen<sup>t</sup> may affect the population growth of bees. Research by [29] showed that the lifespan of migratory adult bees tends to decrease compared to stationary bees.

In this research, we only focused on environmental stressors (e.g., habitat condition) and did not investigate other potential drivers that affect population growth of bees, such as pests and pathogens, and genetic diversity as well as vitality of bees [9]. However, habitat type did not guarantee that bees were unhampered from insecticide. This might be related to the foraging range of bees as well as the food source, which is not only pollen but also honeydew. Honey bee presence was positively affected by the presence of honeydew and source of insecticide residue that affected honey quality [30]. Neonicotinoid (imidacloprid), which was found in our study, was also detected in 11% samples of honey from apiaries located in Poland [31]. However, the death of honey bees from Bologna were reported from different active ingredients of insecticide [32]. Thus, in this research, neonicotinoid was detected in the body of bees and honey, although it was in a small amount of residue.
