**3. Results**

#### *3.1. Characteristics of Studies*

Overall, 11 studies were included [17,19–28] (flow chart, Figure 1). Among the 1436 participants, 1009 subjects experienced Ramadan fasting, 239 received other fasting interventions (2 days/week (*N* = 28) or one day/week fasting (*N* = 22), 14 h restricted fasting with caloric restriction (*N* = 27) or caloric restriction without intermittent fasting (25% caloric restriction or 800 cal/day) (*N* = 162)). One study was included in both Ramadan and fasting controlled studies [19]. Three very low-calorie diet interventions could not be included because both groups received fasting interventions [7–9].
