**1. Introduction**

Societies settled in a particular place for an extended period of time tend to co-evolve with their environment, adjusting resource use to ecological variability and social changes [1–3]. Accumulated knowledge of place informs collective decision-making, which over time shapes institutions, or rules-in-use, that are compatible with local social–ecological systems [4,5]. Local level institutions and the generations of knowledge that inform them are critical to achieving sustainable fisheries [6–8]. Due to colonial and economic influences, these time-tested systems have become fragmented or displaced in many parts of the world [7,9,10]. However, many rural and Indigenous communities, with growing support from governing bodies and resource managers, are reviving and adapting Indigenous and place-based resource management systems to fit contemporary contexts, often through collaborative partnerships [11–14].

Community-based collaborative management, or co-management, is the sharing of management authority and responsibility, often between local communities and government agencies [15]. Through co-management, community groups can exercise greater autonomy and decision-making power, support short-staffed and underfunded government agencies, apply traditional and place-based

knowledge, and tailor management to local social–ecological contexts [16–19]. Co-management is an ongoing process that evolves through practice and social learning [19]. This joint learning-by-doing process offers a promising institutional framework through which communities can exercise greater influence while enhancing the adaptive capacity of coastal social–ecological systems [19,20].

Hawai'i's *konohiki* system is an example of a community-based co-management institution that adapted to social–ecological change. Understanding how locally managed *konohiki* fisheries continued to operate under the territory and later state of Hawai'i can inform community efforts to restore local level fisheries governance within contemporary centralized state management systems. In the *ahupua*'*a* of Kahana, *konohiki* fishing rights, which were terminated throughout most of Hawai'i in 1900, were officially recognized through the mid-1960s. As one of the longest lasting *konohiki* fisheries in Hawai'i, Kahana offers insights into how features of this Hawaiian biocultural resource management system endured in modern times (1850–1965). Current community efforts to adapt features of this system to contemporary contexts also provide important considerations for collaborative management and biocultural restoration. Using a mixed-methods approach, we explore how relationships with place and local governance endure despite changes in land and sea tenure, and what lessons this case offers for other communities engaged in restoring local level fisheries governance.

#### **2. Background**

#### *2.1. History of Hawaiian Fisheries Management*

Hawaiian fisheries management is based on familial and reciprocal relationships with marine resources [21,22]. The land and sea were not owned but communally accessed and cared for at the local level, within *moku* (districts) or *ahupua*'*a*, defined as "culturally appropriate, ecologically aligned, and place specific [land divisions] with access to diverse resources" [23] (p. 71). Within *ahupua*'*a*, residents and *konohiki* shared both stewardship responsibilities and exclusive harvest rights [24].

*Konohiki*, or local headmen, were traditionally appointed by ruling chiefs to oversee the well-being of *ahupua*'*a* resources and residents [24,25]. *Konohiki* held extensive knowledge of the local ecology and natural cycles in order to effectively monitor fishery health [24–26]. Through consultation with local elders and expert fishermen, *konohiki* determined when it was appropriate to place restrictions on certain species or areas to protect their replenishment [26]. Adherence to these restrictions was motivated by strict enforcement as well as shared cultural, social, and spiritual values [26,27]. *Konohiki*, which translates to "to invite ability," also had to earn and maintain the respect of *ahupua*'*a* residents in order to mobilize participation in communal caretaking and harvesting efforts [28]. If *konohiki* did not treat the people fairly, residents, who tended the land and sea, were free to move to a different *ahupua*'*a* [24,25]. Thus '*a*¯*ina momona*, or abundant lands, was an indication of balance and harmony between *konohiki* and *ahupua*'*a* residents [24].

*Konohiki* fishing rights were first written into law in 1839 with Hawai'i's Declaration of Rights, and later codified with the passage of the Civil Code of 1859. These laws designated fishing grounds for the exclusive access of *konohiki* and *ahupua*'*a* residents, "but not for others" [29] (p. 2). The *konohiki* could legally regulate the fishery by either placing a restriction each year on one species for personal use, or by prohibiting all fishing during certain months, then exacting one-third of the catch upon reopening the fishery [29].

Western encroachment transformed Hawaiian land and sea tenure in the mid- to late-19th century. Transition from a communal land tenure system to a private property regime began with Hawai'i's land division process in 1846–1855, which apportioned the land among the King, ruling chiefs or *konohiki*, and *ahupua*'*a* residents. Although intended to secure Native Hawaiian rights to ancestral lands and resources, creation of fee simple land titles instead paved the way for dispossession [30]. Following the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, the Organic Act of 1900 established Hawai'i as a USA territory and required registration of all *konohiki* fisheries. Only 101 of the estimated 300 to 400 known *konohiki* fisheries were successfully registered [29]. From 1900 through the 1970s, the Hawai'i

territorial and later state governments sought to systematically condemn even these remaining local fisheries, opening them for public access [29,31].

Today, the State of Hawai'i's Department of Land and Natural Resources exercises authority over Hawai'i's 750 m of coastline and 1.3 million acres of state lands and coastal waters, which extend 3 m offshore [32]. Fisheries regulations based on size and bag limits, seasonal closures, and gear restrictions are administered statewide through the department's Division of Aquatic Resources. This centralized, top-down management contrasts the community-based *konohiki* system that maintained fishery abundance in past generations [26,33]. Hawai'i's fisheries have considerably declined under state management [34] due to insufficient funds, staffing, and place-based knowledge tailored to address local social-ecological complexities [26,33,35]. In response, communities across Hawai'i, including fishing families of Kahana on the island of O'ahu, are working to restore local level governance through reviving traditional knowledge and place-based caretaking.
