**3. Results**

Participants were not surveyed for traditional demographic indicators (e.g., age, income, education) but were represented by statistics such as farm size and reliance on farming (Table 1). In these terms, participants overall agreed with statewide statistics [51,52] and previous surveys of farmers in Hawai'i [48,49]. Farmers represented a range of practices, goals, values and demographics. On one end of the spectrum, interviewees included the largest productive orchard in the state, growing over 500 trees in a monocropped section of a highly conventional agricultural operation. In contrast, we also saw smaller farms including Native Hawaiian homesteaders growing diversified agriculture mainly for subsistence purposes. Results included experiences of individuals, non-profit organizations, cooperative organizations and for-profit companies that operated on fee simple, lease and partnership lands (fee simple refers to leases privately owned land, partnership lands are less formal agreements that give access to land without ownership). The individuals we talked to represented Native

Hawaiians, plantation-era multi-generational families and new immigrants to Hawai'i. Despite these vast differences in motivations, backgrounds and structures, there were clear commonalities in the discussions with each as they related to and talked about breadfruit.


**Table 1.** Farm attributes of survey participants.

Analysis of interview notes resulted in the identification of five key themes: customary values, traditional agriculture, food security, ecological health and community (social) capital. Further organization indicated that each theme often overlapped and interacted with other themes, which lead to the development of a conceptual diagram of the themes in the framework of biocultural restoration and sustainability (Figure 3). Building upon this conceptual structure, results are presented within the five identified themes, utilizing data from the participant surveys and farm sampling, along with analysis and specific examples from the interviews. Results are further discussed within the frameworks of biocultural restoration and sustainability.

**Figure 3.** Conceptual diagram illustrating the relationship between the major themes that arose in the research and how they situate within the concepts of biocultural restoration and sustainability. The white boxes show the five themes identified from the interview data. The black boxes represent the basis of the biocultural relationship and the colored circles show common dimensions of sustainability.

### *3.1. Customary Values*

A key theme that emerged from participant interaction centered on customary Hawaiian values, regardless of participant ethnicity. Hawaiian values such as aloha (love or compassion), kuleana (reciprocal responsibility), ha'aha'a (humbleness), pono (righteousness) and ahonui (patience) were prominent in Hawaiian life [53]. One description of aloha from the early 19th century translates, "It was often said...Hawaiians...were full of love when they received visitors wherever they lived...[and]

people...were greatly taken by the hospitality (aloha) of the Hawaiians..." [53]. Expression of Hawaiian values was seen in direct statements by participants, as well as in descriptions of their activities. The importance of showing aloha to guests and between one another, to facilitate bonding and with it a sense of identity was expressed. This was further expressed through generosity, which may be thought of as an extension of aloha and living pono by ensuring comfort and sense of belonging between people.

Offering generous hospitality and food sharing were common themes during interaction with breadfruit farmers. The act of exchanging goods traditionally reaffirmed familial bonds and 'ohana (kinship, family) in ancient Hawai'i [54]. In contemporary times, food sharing is less relevant for food security but still remains a significant cultural tradition that strengthens social ties [55]. For example, a visit to "Farmer A's" farm included a sit-down dinner, food, wine and storytelling extending beyond the purpose of the visit. Another 'ulu farmer, "Farmer C," insists his guests will not leave without being well fed, "Farmer B" shared fruits and homemade products, while "Farmer D" sends visitors on the road with boxes of produce. Like many 'ulu farmers, "Farmer E," an agricultural producer and "Farmer F," a non-profit farmer, will both begin or end work visits with food potluck family-style. Of the 36 agricultural producers, 20 (56%) included food sharing with researchers. More instances of hospitality were demonstrated to the broader community. Of the producers, eight (22%) expressed that they regularly host community gatherings for the farming population where food and food exchange are a critical expression of community commitment and reciprocity. Foods shared among farmers at gatherings are locally grown and wholesome, emphasizing well-being and environmental health. "Farmer E" and "Farmer G" offer a place to stay for travelers and visitors and extend invitations to their community to gather, share stories and spend time together. We have found this to be very different than our previous experience with farmer surveys, in which less than 20% of farmers conducted food-sharing and gifts with the researchers [48,49]. Reciprocity extended beyond physical gifts, often aiding in neighboring farms or even providing direct financial support. Several farmers expressed the importance of supporting each other, with "Farmer E" voicing, "[It's] just the Hawaiian interest and value in me, if someone can do it, they should."

Breadfruit farmers also negotiate with their "customers," who are in reality our communities, which demonstrates a respect and appreciation for the well-being of all. Many 'ulu farmers meet customers halfway on pricing to be able to cover their needs and others provide affordable, local produce. This practice, surprisingly, was seen in both subsistence and commercially-driven producers. Within the interviews this practice was commonly expressed in terms of a "traditional" or "alternative" economy. These instances demonstrate the strong presence of Hawaiian values instilled and alive within the surrounding 'ulu farming communities and importantly, increase resiliency through reciprocity, increased self-reliance, social ties and community building [44,55].

While these values may be prevalent among farmers in general, breadfruit, which carries with it the traditional perspective of a "gift from the gods," seems exceptionally conducive to the customary values of giving. Compared to previous farmer surveys and interviews conducted by the author [48,49] expression of Hawaiian values was much higher among breadfruit cultivators. As "Farmer G" states, "the [breadfruit] trees give us so much for free. It is only right to share it with others."

#### *3.2. Traditional Agricultural Practices*

Multiple participating farms shared traditional agricultural practices that were passed down by family. Several farmers including "Farmer B," "Farmer C," "Farmer H," "Farmer I" and "Farmer J" cared for old, remnant breadfruit patches; they call the one large, eldest tree the "mother tree." New trees were then propagated using the keiki (child) root shoots or root cuttings. Similarly, we observed many farmers still using lou—the traditional harvesting tool, although the materials have changed [54]. Many producers (37%) use traditional planting and ground preparation methods, applying green mulch prior to planting. Three (8%) producers used the practice of placing a fish or octopus at the bottom of the planting hole and eight (22%) producers engaged in the ancient practice

of planting a placenta under a new tree. More than half (56%) the producers felt they engaged in some sort of cultural protocol when it came to their trees and expressed that these protocols enhanced the health and well-being of the land and plants. Several farmers utilized the traditional practice of planting in accordance with moon phases.

Importantly, participants primarily engaged in the traditional application of breadfruit cultivation within agroforestry systems. Of the farmers, only six (17%) had mono-cropped stands of breadfruit and of those four (11%) grew other crop species in adjacent plots. For the most part, breadfruit cultivation was integrated into diverse agricultural systems, somewhat sporadically interspersed within a variety of different crops or had breadfruit cultivation areas more systematically interplanted with other crops; intercropping included mai'a, kalo, niu, 'olena, 'awapuhi, coffee, papaya, ornamentals, citrus trees ¯ and leafy green vegetables. "Farmer H" was actively restoring the traditional Hawaiian breadfruit agroforestry system, while "Farmer G" has created a modern agroforestry system with a broad range of tree, shrub and annual crops. Agricultural producers and non-profits, such as "Farmer F," "Farmer K," "Farmer L," "Farmer M," incorporated breadfruit cultivation adjacent to lo'i (flooded terraced) cultivation of kalo. Growing breadfruit in diverse agricultural systems can be tied to cultural values and beliefs regarding the tree. At least three separate growers used the exact same phrase that "'ulu does not want to be alone" and although there is no agronomic evidence to support it, several farmers expressed that they felt breadfruit grew better in mixed agricultural settings rather than in isolation. Although we can likely expect and in fact already see, the development of more mono-cropped breadfruit as the industry continues to develop in Hawai'i (N.K. Lincoln unpublished data), current breadfruit cultivation is employed in mixed agroforestry agriculture that indicates its role in the revival of traditional agricultural practices and usage.

In addition to the physical practices, value-based practices were commonly described by participants discussing their tree management. The most commonly mentioned practice was of kilo (observation of one's surrounding). Farmers often planned their schedules around cycles, weather patterns and observations. For example, "Farmer C" will only water trees according to observing his trees for signs of water deficiency. Similarly, "Farmer F" and "Farmer G" utilize observations of their tree health to determine the best co-crops and "Farmer B" selected individual planting sites based on nuances of microclimates on the farm. Utilization of intuitive management practices guides input adjustment resulting in conservative resource use. This method is reliable and profitable, demonstrated by "Farmer C" having one of the highest yields per tree. Types of local knowledge such as this are thought to have broader implications for restoration projects [8]. It is also important to note that knowledge gained from biocultural relationships typically is formed on small farms [5].

#### *3.3. Community (Social) Capital*

Many of the 'ulu farmers leverage their farm to enhance relationships between people, land and plants within their communities by serving as educational and cultural centers. "Farmer F" has regular work days for volunteers and students to participate in traditional farming methods, while "Farmer H" opens her farm to agroecology tours and farmer training to teach about agroforestry, traditional agriculture and dryland agriculture. "Farmer L," one of the largest agricultural producers that participated, has conducted several workshops on breadfruit production, including the promotion of diversified agroforestry despite the fact that he largely employs industrial, monocropping practices. As was often expressed, the education is not only about the food and the plant but the place and the people. "Farmer K" stated, "We really want to get the kids in the area out here to learn about the place where they live. A lot of them do not know the place names of where they live. They do not know what ahupua'a (traditional land division) they are in and I want to teach them that." Linking agriculture, cultural learning and land preservation is not a new concept but is currently being reinforced by 'ulu farmers. In such ways, knowledge and professional development skills are passed on through local and culturally appropriate methods. It is argued that cultural education increases resiliency of food

systems because memories and lessons that teach people to be stewards of their land allow them to adapt and reorganize [5].

Growers also commented on how they themselves were educated through engagement with 'ulu. Rebuilding his farm from scratch, "Farmer F" recounted how he learned much of his farming through trial and error; while there were elders who taught him kalo farming, knowledge was not passed to him about growing 'ulu. He was now excited to share what he learned with others and discussed the importance of knowledge exchange between farmers and the younger generation. This was a common theme amongst the breadfruit farmers, who dominantly indicated that working with the crop has been a rewarding learning experience. Their learning experiences are critical in particular because, unlike other crops, breadfruit has not been well studied from an agronomic perspective and especially regarding the vastly different growing conditions that Hawai'i represents. As such, the accumulated knowledge from growers represents a significant knowledge source to share amongst themselves and others.

#### *3.4. Food Security*

Breadfruit makes significant contributions to food security and improved health in Hawai'i. Some farmers share breadfruit in the customary sense between familial ties but in general, the practice is broader. One farmer, "Farmer N," does not sell his fruit through any conventional economic pathway but only to friends, family, church members and the broader community, often trading or even giving it away. Every participant, even the most commercial agricultural producers, indicated that they give away fruit or reserve part of their harvest for friends, family, or community. This regard for others before profits is unique when compared to other farmer surveys in Hawai'i (e.g., [48,49]). When "Farmer G" was pressed as to why breadfruit was given away, she indicated that breadfruit was going to be essential for Hawai'i's food security in the future and so that "people need to get ma'a (accustomed to) it now." Similarly, "Farmer H" indicated that breadfruit was traditionally a food that signified wealth and abundance and that "there is no greater wealth than to be able to feed your community." "Farmer H," "Farmer F," "Farmer C," "Farmer M" and others all regularly donated fruit to local schools, food baskets and other non-profit organizations simply to engage in the practice of feeding their communities.

Due to the short shelf-life of the fruit and lack of processing facilities for breadfruit in Hawai'i, a negligible amount of breadfruit is currently exported from the state. Despite supplying a purely local market, breadfruit has seen a dramatic rise in production (Figure 4). Based on our surveys the growth of breadfruit plantings statewide has grown exponentially, from fewer than 500 commercial tree plantings 20 years ago, to over 3000 trees today, with more than a doubling of plantings expected within the next five years. Considering that 'ulu farms are located on all the main Hawaiian Islands (Figure 1) in multiple locations, it has potential to feed multiple communities around the state.

**Figure 4.** Cumulative number of commercial breadfruit tree plantings identified in Hawai'i in 2017. The negative five-year category represents trees producers have indicated they plan on planting within the next five years.

Some organizations, such as that of "Farmer O" and "Farmer P" have evolved into major community hubs for community food security. Children, community members and farmers participate and learn about local and traditional foods that support good public health. Meetings held at "Farmer P's" farm afford individuals to learn about these foods and make learned decisions about diet. Teaching, for example, that traditional starches, such as breadfruit with its moderate glycemic index, is predicted to greatly reduce diabetes if re-adopted [25]. Similarly, workshops and tree sales by "Farmer H" educate the community on growing backyard trees and the impact that it can make on a family's health, economics and food security.
