**3. Sooty Tern Optimization**

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⎜ ⎛௦ሺ , , ሻ = − ௦ௗ ൦ ൮ ൬ ௦ + ௦ ൰ ଵ ൲ − 1൪ − ௦ + ௦ ௦ The sooty tern optimization (STO) algorithm was proposed in 2019 [39,40]. The algorithm is inspired by the attacking behavior of sooty tern birds. Generally, sooty terns live in groups. They employ their intelligence to locate and attack a target. The most

notable characteristics of sooty terns are their migrating and assaulting behaviors. The following provide insights into sooty tern birds:

