*4.1. Parameter Extraction of the R.T.C France Solar Cell*

For a single-diode model, five parameters (*Ip*, *Isd*, *a*, *R<sup>s</sup>* , *Rsh*) must be estimated. The values of simulated current and power with their IAE are charted in Table 2. Table 3 shows the values of the STO-optimized parameters and RMSE for comparison. The STO algorithm has the lowest RMSE of 8.6106 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup>−<sup>4</sup> when compared to other algorithms. In this case, RMSE values are obtained as an index for evaluating results with previously constructed techniques by the researchers. Figure 3 depicts a redrawn current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics curve for a single-diode model based on the optimum optimized parameters achieved by executing the STO method. The computed data generated by the STO was found to be very close to the experimental data set across the whole voltage range.

**Table 2.** The calculated current and absolute error results of the STO for SDM of the R.T.C France solar cell.

