*3.6. Total Effects*

The direct effect of perceived control over time on fear of COVID-19 (c') was −0.03 (CI: LL = −0.15; UL = 0.08: *p* = n.s.) (see Figure 2). In contrast, the total indirect effect via both mediators (a1b1 + a2b2) was −0.12 (CI: LL = −0.23, UL = −0.01, *p* < 0.001). Consequently, the total effect (a1b1 + a2b2 + c') of X on Y was −0.15. Therefore, the total effect (c = −0.12; CI: LL = −0.23, UL = −0.01, *p* < 0.05) of perceived control over time on fear of COVID-19 was due to a negative indirect path, as the coefficient for direct effect (c' = −0.03) was higher than that of the total indirect effect (−0.15). Hence, results show that mental health is a significant mediator between perceived control over time and fear of COVID-19 whereas vitality is not.

#### **4. Discussion**

The present study has multiple aims: the first goal is to determine the predictive role of perceived control over time on COVID-19 fear; the second is to analyze the reciprocal linear associations among perceived control over time, mental health, and vitality as well those among mental health, vitality, and COVID-19 fear; the final aim is to understand the influence of perceived control over time on fear of COVID-19 by considering how mental health and vitality mediate this relationship.

The whole sample shows a significant negative association between perceived control over time and fear of COVID-19, corroborating H1 (path c). It should be noted that the subscale of perceived control over the time of the Time Management Behavior Scale of Macan et al. [18], which we used in the present study, explored how perceived control over time affects task completion within deadlines or procrastination. Thus, in line with prior literature reporting that perceived control may act as a protective factor buffering the psychological impact of the pandemic on general health and life satisfaction [35], we found that during the COVID-19 lockdown, when people feel confident in managing their time effectively, they also have less anxiety [36]. We could hypothesize that even if people are forced to remain at home by the lockdown restriction, they could be less pressured by the so-called deadline rush in completing their work, studying, or completing familiar tasks [37]. Thus, their belief in their ability to control their time prevents them from experiencing COVID-19 fear. The present study also evidences gender differences in perceived control over time and COVID-19 fear, showing females having higher scores than males. This outcome is not contradictory. Indeed, even if our data come from a sample composed chiefly of young undergraduate females (female = 68%), they reflect the prior findings in the literature on perceived control, usually depicting young and highly educated women as more able to manage their daily activities than men [34]. In addition, it is in line with psychological literature reporting that women having higher levels of chronic and daily stressors [20] and higher emotional vulnerability, particularly when responding to negative emotions in comparison with men [38]. It also must be noted that females did not differ from males in their scores for mediators.

We secondarily found that perceived control over time is significantly related to mental health and vitality, so data fully support H2 (path a1) and H3 (path a2). Research has demonstrated that people's ability/inability to control time is associated with wellbeing [13] and mental health complaints [39,40]. Our findings show a significant negative relationship between people's time management beliefs and mental health, indicating that individuals with higher perceived control over time had lower negative mental health statuses. Indeed, the recent literature on the COVID-19 pandemic assigned an essential role to perceived control in moderating the relationship between the perceived severity of COVID-19 and mental health problems. In particular, the more people perceive themselves to be in control of their lives (and time), the more satisfied and healthier they were [41].

Third, our results find strong evidence of the significant positive relationship between fear of COVID-19 and adverse mental health statuses and, conversely, of the significant negative relationship between fear of COVID-19 and vitality, fully corroborating H4 (path b1) and H5 (path b2). From this perspective, our results are consistent with recent outcomes showing that the COVID-19 fear represents a sort of chronic mental anxiety perceived by individuals under the current uncertain and ongoing pandemic [42–45]. This psychological distress leads people to be continuously worried about their health and future infection by SARS-CoV-2: depression, anxiety, boredom, loneliness, insomnia, or anger symptoms [46] are reported; in turn, adverse mental health statuses and loss of vitality enhance the fear toward COVID-19 infection.

Finally, we found partial support for H6 (path c') since the present study shows that only mental health but not vitality significantly mediates the relationship between perceived control over time and fear of COVID-19. We tested a parallel mediation model considering the effect of both mental health and vitality. We need to focus on the items' content measured by the SF-36 mental health and vitality subscales to understand this outcome. Indeed, on the one hand, the mental health subscale asks people to indicate what kind of emotions they feel, e.g., nervous, happy, peaceful, sad, or down in dumps; on the other hand, the vitality subscale requires people to indicate their level of energy, tiredness, and fatigue. Although the recent literature reported how fear of COVID-19 affects vitality [29] in line with the theory of perceived control, our results corroborate that ability to handle environmental stress is closely associated with emotional state. Controlling time alters individuals' perceptions regarding threats [47]. In turn, the crucial mediational role of mental health we found in the present study is supported by prior psychological literature about emotion regulation, demonstrating how emotions are critical factors for guiding individuals to avoid or cope with distressing situations, bringing about a positive outcome [48]. Therefore, we could argue that in managing such a negative situation as the COVID-19 pandemic, the loss of vitality represents more a physiological state related to inactivity and social isolation. Mental health statuses associated with emotions could,

in contrast, vary during the day. Thus, even while experiencing exhaustion, positive or negative emotions are essential in modulating the relationship between perceived control over time and the fear of being infected. When people have favorable feelings, they also have a better perception of their time, manage their daily routines or working duties, and are less anxious toward the COVID-19 pandemic. Such a result has practical implications for developing treatment programs to enhance persons' capacity and competence to handle their daily activities, schedule their time, and use effective techniques based on emotional coping to prevent fear and anxiety toward the COVID-19 pandemic.

However, the present study has some limitations to report. First, the sample is based mainly on an Italian university population; thus, we cannot generalize to the entire general population. Further studies should be performed, for instance, on samples of workers or professionals to corroborate our results. A second limitation is the study's cross-sectional design, based on a sample mainly comprising women. Future studies should be based on a longitudinal design to compare the mental health and vitality statuses in the different lockdown phases and obtain a more balanced sample with regard to gender.
