*2.3. Measurements*

Participants were asked to complete the online sociodemographic questionnaire consisting of information on age, gender, ethnicity, region, marital status, religion, educational level, and health. In terms of participants' living conditions, extended family included grandparent(s), parent(s) and child(ren) of three or more generations; nuclear family included conventional family of parent(s) and child(ren); and alone defined a Single person household. The physiological impact of anxiety against COVID-19 was assessed using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). According to previous studies, a major physiological problem was anxiety, compared to depression and stress [6,16]. Anxiety was assessed by seven items [35]. A higher score indicates a higher level of anxiety. Response options were "never", "sometimes", "frequently", and "every time", with respective scores of 0, 1, 2, and 3. Cronbach's α value for the Indonesian version was 0.85 [36].

Participants' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) towards COVID-19 were assessed using a KAP questionnaire developed by Zhong et al. (2020) and included statements about clinical presentations, transmission routes, and the prevention and control of COVID-19 (a 12-item scale). The response options were "true", "false", and "do not know"; a correct answer was given a score of 1 and an incorrect or "do not know" response was given a score of 0. The total possible knowledge

score (K1~K12) ranged from 0–12; a higher score indicates better knowledge of COVID-19. Cronbach's α value for the KAP-COVID-19 study was 0.71, indicating good internal consistency [21]. Items of attitude in this study were measured by two questions (A1 and A2), including agreement about ultimate control of the disease with three response options, namely agree = 0, disagree, and unknown = 1, and confidence of winning the battle against COVID-19 (agree = 0 and disagree = 1). Moreover, the assessment of participants' practices consisted of two behavioral questions (P1 and P2), including going to crowded places (yes = 1; no = 0), and wearing a mask when leaving home these days (yes = 0; no = 1). The KAP-COVID-19 questionnaire was developed in China and is available in English. A back-translation method was used to translate the items from English into Bahasa Indonesia and to ensure linguistic and conceptual equivalence using an item discriminant analysis with a *p* value of <0.001.

The Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) contains 16 questions, each of which has a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or seldom) to 6 (every time). The scale measures ordinary experiences encountered in daily life related to feelings of transcendence [37]. The Indonesian version of the 16-item DSES questionnaire had good internal consistency with Cronbach's alpha of 0.86 [38]. The more points an individual has, the greater their experience of spirituality.
