*3.3. Di*ff*erences in Anxiety and Depression between Physically Active and Inactive University Students*

Results of the binominal logistic regression suggest that, during the COVID-19 pandemic, university students that met the clinical criteria for depression (the PHQ-9 scores ≥ 10) were 1.6 times less likely to engage in PA (≥150 min PA weekly) than those without clinically significant depression χ<sup>2</sup> (1) = 19.04, OR = 1.64, 95% CI (1.31, 2.05), B = 0.49, SE B = 0.11, t(1510) = 4.32, *p* < 0.001, Wald χ<sup>2</sup> = 18.67. Undergraduates that met the clinical criteria for anxiety (the GAD-7 scores ≥ 10) were 1.7 times less likely to exercise than their counterparts without clinically significant anxiety disorders, χ2(1) = 17.98, OR = 1.69, 95% CI (1.32, 2.17), B = 0.53, SE B = 0.13, t(1510) = 4.18, *p* < 0.001, Wald χ<sup>2</sup> = 17.47. Undergraduates with the dual clinical criteria of depression and anxiety (scores in the PHQ-9 ≥ 10 and GAD-7 ≥ 10) were 1.9 times less likely to be physically active than people without clinically

significant mental health symptoms, χ<sup>2</sup> (1) = 22.84, OR = 1.95, 95% CI (1.47, 2.58), B = 0.67, SE B = 0.14, t(1241) = 4.68, *p* < 0.001, Wald χ<sup>2</sup> = 21.89.

Table 4 and Figure 1 demonstrate some results of the two-way ANOVA test with anxiety as the dependent variable and sex (female, male) and PA groups (inactive, active) as the independent variables. A significant effect was found for sex and PA separately (Table 4). The Tukey HSD post hoc test showed that females scored significantly higher in anxiety than males and physically inactive female students (those who were engaged in PA less than 150 min weekly during the coronavirus pandemic). Levels of anxiety were similar in physically active and inactive female students. Physically active and inactive male university students did not differ in their anxiety levels. The effect of interaction between gender and PA was also not statistically significant.

**Table 4.** Means, standard deviations, and two-way ANOVA statistics for anxiety.


*n* = 1512. ANOVA = analysis of variance; S = sex, PA = physical activity.

**Figure 1.** Mean anxiety scores for groups of undergraduates differing in sex (women, men) and engagement in physical activity (active, inactive). Error bars show standard errors. \* *p* < 0.05, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.

A two-way ANOVA was conducted for depression as a dependent variable and sex (female, male) and PA groups (inactive, active) as independent variables (see Table 5 and Figure 2 for more details). Both sex and PA were statistically significant factors for depression but without an interaction effect. The Tukey HSD post hoc test showed that physically active women differ significantly in depression to inactive female students, as well as active and inactive males. Significant differences were also found between inactive women and active men.

**Variable Female Male ANOVA M SD M SD E**ff**ect F (1, 1508)** *p* η*<sup>p</sup>* **2** PA groups S 44.59 <0.001 0.03 Active 7.82 5.30 5.88 5.09 PA 10.33 0.001 0.01 Inactive 8.87 5.62 6.78 5.06 S × PA 0.06 0.812 0.00

**Table 5.** Means, standard deviations, and two-way ANOVA statistics for depression.

*n* = 1512. ANOVA = analysis of variance; S = sex, PA = physical activity.

**Figure 2.** Mean depression scores for groups of undergraduates differing in sex (women, men) and engagement in physical activity (active, inactive). Error bars show standard errors. \* *p* < 0.05, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.
