1.1.2. Social Learning

Social learning emerges when individuals and groups employ dialogue to collectively problem-solve; surface assumptions through reflexivity; and use experimentation, improvisation and adaptation in their initiation of novel approaches [2,20,21]. Such learning is believed to have substantive value, producing new shared knowledge and actions with the potential for adapting and responding to complex challenges [22,23]. It also holds normative value with learning, particularly that which is aimed at achieving an environmental or social goal, being an end in and of itself [24]. In addition to the presumed substantive and normative benefits of social learning, some scholars argue that social learning also provides instrumental value by enhancing trust, governance, social legitimacy, attitudinal and behavioural change, stakeholder empowerment and social networks [6,11] (p. 45), and by producing new identities, as well as institutions and individual capacities, that are more socially and ecologically robust [24].

Yet as Parson and Clark [25] (p. 429) argue, tremendous ambiguity surrounds the concept:

The term social learning conceals great diversity. That many researchers describe the phenomena they are examining as "social learning" does not necessarily indicate a common theoretical perspective, disciplinary heritage, or even language. Rather, the contributions employ the language, concepts, and research methods of a half-dozen major disciplines; focus on individuals, groups, formal organizations, professional communities, or entire societies; and use divergent definitions of learning, of what it means for learning to be "social," and of theory.

For instance, scholars like Kilvington, Allen [26], and Fernandez-Gimenez et al. [27] conceptualize social learning as a deliberative process, one characterized by dialogue, negotiation and reflexivity between actors within social networks, typically in service of a pro-environmental goal (encapsulating both process and purpose). Others, like Reed et al. [28], place the emphasis on outcomes, arguing that three distinct criteria must be met for social learning to be obtained: (1) a change in understanding in the individuals involved must be demonstrated (i.e., learning outcomes), (2) this change must go beyond the individual and become situated within wider social units or communities of practice (i.e., network effects) and (3) this occurs through social interactions between actors within a social network (i.e., processes or conditions for social learning).

To further muddy the conceptual waters, the "social" in social learning, which refers to the social context that shapes and is shaped by learning [29–31], implies multiple settings for and influences on learning. It includes interpersonal settings though which individuals informally and collaboratively learn from one another as well as the culture in which they live and the groups with which they interact [31]. This challenges the determination of learning causes and effects.
