**1. Introduction**

Nowadays, we are witnessing the rapid introduction of organic farming all over the world and especially in Europe. Furthermore, the European Commission of the European Parliament aims to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides in the EU [1]. The intention of all member states is to reduce the risks and impacts of the excessive use of pesticides on human health and the environment and to promote the use of alternative approaches or techniques, such as non-chemical alternatives to pesticides and compliance with the principles of integrated pest managemen<sup>t</sup> (IPM) [1]. The Biodiversity Strategy adopted in 2020, as well as the "Farm to Fork Strategy", includes the adoption of reduction targets for pesticides. Therefore, the wider implementation of alternative methods that can replace or reduce pesticide use is necessary for both organic and integrated farming methods.

The Colorado potato beetle (CPB), *Leptinotarsa decemlineata* Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is native to North America with origin in central Mexico and was primarily known to only feed on few wild host plants [2,3]. In the US for a long time, its range was restricted to the eastern part of the Rocky Mountains, where it fed, for instance, on the buffalo bur, *Solanum rostratum* Dunal, a plant of no economic importance for farmers. As soon as the potato (*Solanum tuberosum* L.) was established

in the area, the CPB adapted to feed on potato crops and began to spread towards the east, reaching the American East Coast by 1874 [2,4]. Larvae and adults mainly feed on the foliage of the host plants, with larvae being more damaging as they can cause high economic losses to farmers. Although the potato is the favorite food source of the CPB, the beetles feed on various agricultural important plants such as cabbage (*Brassica oleracea* L.), pepper (*Piper nigrum* L.), tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum* L.), eggplant (*Solanum melongena* L.), and tomatoes (*Solanum lycopersicum* L.) [5]. It also attacks a wide variety of weeds such as mullein (*Verbascum Thapsus* L.), thistle (*Cirsium vulgare* (Savi) Ten.), henbane (*Hyoscyamus niger* L.), belladonna (*Atropa belladonna* L.), and horse nettle (*Solanum carolinense* L.) [6]. The CPB is not only a threat to its native continent, but also for many areas worldwide [3]. For instance, the first European population of CPBs was discovered in Germany just a few years after spreading in the US, but was prevented from establishing as an invasive species. That kept the pest successfully out of Europe for the next 45 years. In 1922, it was rediscovered in France and since the end of the last century, the pest had spread over large parts of Europe and eastern and central Asia. As its reach continues to expand, the beetle potentially could spread also to temperate areas of Australia and New Zealand, Africa, Latin America, and India [7].

The adult beetles normally spend the winter hidden several inches deep in the soil or in woody vegetation close to or within potato fields. In spring, they walk or fly for up to several kilometers in search of potato or other host plant fields [8]. They establish themselves on a plant and start reproducing. Females lay egg masses on the undersides of leaves in batches of approximately 25 eggs. As the eggs are laid in clumps, the larvae tend to be found in clumps, as well [9]. Each female is able to lay as many as 600 eggs in total. The main damage on potato leaves is caused by larval feeding. If not controlled, CPBs may generate up to 100 percent defoliation months before the growing season ends, decreasing tuber yields by over 50 percent [10]. Annually, in cooler areas, the beetles complete one generation, in milder areas up to three generations [2,9]. All these life cycle characteristics and its behavior make the CPB a very successful and harmful pest for global potato production.

The potato has several characteristics that make it especially suitable for production in developing countries. Potatoes can be grown in areas of limited land, grow fast, are adaptable, are high yielding, and are responsive to low inputs. Together with rice, wheat, and maize, potatoes represent more than 50% of the world's food energy needs [11]. In 2012, in China, the economic loss caused by CPBs was estimated to be 3.2 million USD per year. The potential annual economic loss after the completion of its invasion is estimated to be 235 million USD [12]. Similar numbers were estimated for Russia, where a loss of more than 75% of potato plant foliage could lead to an annual complete crop loss if CPB is not controlled e ffectively [13].

Conventional insecticides (mainly synthetically produced chemicals) for many years have been used against CPB, primarily due to their rapid action. Nevertheless, it resulted in numerous problems related to pest resistance to active substances contained in such chemical protection products. [14,15]. This has often prompted the development of even more chemical control tools, which is neither ecologically nor very economically friendly [16]. Furthermore, it triggered the elimination of the pests' natural enemies as well as the residues of toxic substances in food, water, air, and soil. It also caused the disturbance of an ecological balance and could also have an adverse impact on human health [14]. Additionally, the use of synthetic insecticides is not allowed in organic farming systems, because of the pressure of consumers for the use of environmentally friendly substances only [17]. Due to the unsustainable and unprofitable use of insecticides, compatible and ecologically friendly methods and products are needed to improve CPB pest management. These alarming aspects led to searching for new, alternative methods of domesticated plant pest controls, which would be safer for the natural environment and human well-being [18]. Hence, at the moment, organic agriculture plays a major role within the agricultural industry and research [19].

In our view, all CPB control methods could be divided into those that are used indirectly or preventively and target either the cultivation system or the potato plant itself. As direct methods, we consider various tools to prevent pest outbreaks by controlling (killing) the pest directly (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Schematic overview of different categories of available Colorado potato beetle control methods and their target sites.

As alternatives to chemical insecticides, all the methods that do not include the application of synthetic insecticides or include their application in reduced doses are considered. Here, we provide an overview of recent developments in alternatives, often ecologically more sustainable, methods of controlling CPB, the world's largest pest in potato fields. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge and belief, we are trying for the first time to link these tested alternative methods with conservation biological effects. In addition, the impacts are assessed not only by highlighting the positive (and negative) effects of alternative control methods on the environment (e.g., biodiversity and ecosystem health), but also vice versa. In our view, these methods could represent a fundamental approach in a world of environmental destruction and loss of biodiversity on one hand, but also contribute to a growing awareness of farmers and consumers of environmentally friendly agricultural products on the other.

#### **2. Alternative Control Methods**

#### *2.1. Indirect Methods for CPB Control*

Indirect methods for CPB control include all agro-technical interventions during the potato growing season as are choice of the variety, crop rotation, soil tillage, fertilization, irrigation, other pest control measures, etc. Among all of them, crop rotation and selection of plant varieties are the most powerful in CPB control.
