**4. Discussion**

The study assessed farmers' experiences and perceptions of brachiaria, a companion crop in a climate-smart PPT. To date, *Brachiaria brizantha* cv. Mulato II is the only variety planted by PPT farmer; therefore, farmers' experience with brachiaria in PPT, as assessed in this study, is based on this variety. However, some farmers may have planted a different variety, but in pure crop stands. The respondents comprised a slightly higher number of females than males. This shows that women are significant and crucial in agricultural development in the region. Studies have shown that, even though most of the African cultures discriminate against women, limiting their land and property rights, they still

account for nearly half of the smallholder farmers [30]. Respondents in the study fall in di fferent age categories with the majority being adults between 41–50, while the lowest comprises of the youth between 20–30 years. There is an emerging debate regarding the declining interest of Africa's young people in agriculture [31]; this trend is evident in the current study. Youth can play a key role in agriculture. Unlike the older people, they have greater energy and education and are better equipped to handle modern agricultural technologies and entrepreneurship and they can reverse the ageing trend of the African farming population. It is perhaps worth mentioning that there is a greater interest in sustainability, e.g., of PPT, by those in lower age groups and that this might also improve gender parity in agriculture. One of the major challenges that the young prospective farmers experience is a lack of access to assets and resources that would increase their productivity, such as land, farming inputs, and tools [32]. However, PPT can solve some resource related problems, as all companion crops are perennial and self-saved cereal seed performs better in PPT than do most commercial hybrids [32].

The study provides evidence that brachiaria is an important source of fodder besides its prominent use in pest managemen<sup>t</sup> strategy (Figure 1). It is used as "pull" component for cereal pests in the climate adapted push-pull technology (PPT); a habitat managemen<sup>t</sup> strategy that was initially developed to manage the lepidopterous stemborers [7]. In a recent farmer perception study, farmers rated the climate-adapted push-pull as being superior in reducing fall armyworm damage on maize [5]. There is shortage of forages in quantity and quality in sub-Saharan Africa, especially during the dry seasons [33]; therefore, the study validates the value of brachiaria as an ideal forage in the region. Other uses of brachiaria, as mentioned by the farmers, include soil conservation by the prevention of soil erosion, sale, and exchange for milk (Figure 1). Brachiaria grasses are well known for improving soil aggregation thus increasing the resistance to soil degradation and erosion [34]. However, farmers listed several production challenges mainly being unavailability of brachiaria seeds in local retail agents, followed by weed and pest attacks and poor seed germination among others (Table 2). The unavailability of seed is mainly caused by high import costs, cumbersome seed registration processes, relatively undeveloped forage seed market, physical constraints, like drought, low germination rates, and the perceived high opportunity cost of growing the seed in Africa. Furthermore, local brachiaria seed production is underdeveloped, partly due reluctance by the private sector citing unorganized and dispersed demand for seed [35].

Arthropod pests are among the major causes of chronic food insecurity witnessed in the region and are expected to worsen with increasing hot and dry conditions associated with climate change [36]. Strategies to minimize such constrains are crucial in the intensification of smallholder farming systems towards achieving food security in the region. Farmers cited spider mites and sorghum shoot flies as main production challenges and as the main pests of *Brachiaria brizantha* cv. Mulato II. They mostly rated both pests as moderate to severe problem. Susceptibility of Mulato II to spider mites has been reported in previous studies [26]. Common symptoms of pest damage on brachiaria, as described by respondents in a focus group discussion (FGD), include: stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, and wilting of growing tips. Spider mites are tiny and di fficult to detect; they are manifested through yellowing of leaves, which the farmers often confuse for mineral deficiency.

Nevertheless, crop improvement based on conventional breeding will continue to be important; many cycles of crossing and backcrossing (pre-breeding) are required to detect and map useful traits [37]. Brachiaria genotypes developed in the Americas and Australia have a higher risk of pest and disease attacks as well as poor adaptability in new environments in Africa. This kind of research involving farmers helps to generate and validate new strategies of integrating crop protection and livestock production which are locally adaptable, and can be introduced widely and applied more rapidly through the discovery of unique traits of companion plants. The introduction of pest-resilient trap plants in push-pull ensures that the technology's full range of opportunities for yield enhancement are exploited in Africa.

When considering the susceptibility of Mulato II to spider mites, there is a need to deploy alternative resistant genotypes, which possess same properties that make them preferred for egg laying by stemborer moths. However, for the successful uptake of such materials, farmers' needs and opinions are key. Farmers evaluated and selected their preferred genotypes from candidate varieties proposed from previous studies, which evaluated drought tolerance, resistance to spider mites, biomass yield, and attractiveness to oviposition by stemborers [25–27]. Xaraes was a highly preferred genotype, followed by Mulato II and Piata (Figure 3). Some of the traits that farmers proposed as a criteria in evaluating brachiaria genotypes are leaf hairlines, leaf size, leaf softness (as a measure of palatability by animals), number of tillers, plant spread, plant height, seed production, resistance to spider mites, and biomass yield. Farmers generally prefer less hairy genotypes for ease in cut and carry, because the hairs are irritating to the skin. They also believe that softer leaves are highly palatable and preferred by the animals, a trait for which they voted Mulato II as superior. However, there is a trade-o ff between hairlines and leaf softness in Mulato II and this might produce mixed results in farmers' rating of the cultivar.

The results of this study are important to policy makers in sub-Saharan Africa because the sustainable increase in agricultural productivity represents a significant opportunity for addressing the pervasive challenge of low productivity, which results in high poverty levels and under-nourishment. Moreover, climate-smart and resilient agricultural systems that are based on such genetic material are needed to protect and enhance natural resources and ecosystem services in ways that mitigate future climate change [38]. The exploitation of such climate-smart, resilient material help farmers to develop production systems that are compatible with their farming systems, and sound managemen<sup>t</sup> of available natural resources. The involvement of farmers in scientific developments in agronomy and agroecological practices take into account their other on-farm enterprises, like livestock keeping, and helps them to fully exploit the benefits of production and resource conservation technologies.
