*3.2. Using Rokeach's Theory of Values to Understand a Values-Led Approach in Planning*

To grasp the connotations of values-led approaches, it is necessary to, first and foremost, grasp the meanings embedded in the concept of value. Rokeach's (1973 and 1979) theory of values provides a path to understand values in the context of planning [42,43]. In theory, he defines a value as an "enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" [42] (p. 5). Based on this definition, Rokeach developed a value survey (RVS) consisting of values considered as preferable behavioural and terminal values which can apply to "a group, a social organization, a total society, or even an ideal society" [42] (p. 38). It is possible to understand Rokeach's (1973 and 1979) theorisation of values in many ways [42,43]. However, a generic inference from the theory, which can be suitable for planning, is that values can be implicit or explicit. They can relate to individuals, places, and groups of people. As is always the case with many theories, there is room for improvement. In this regard, Schwartz (2012) investigated Rokeach's theory and concluded that it does not adequately explain the underlying structure of values as a system [44]. This cultural perspective of values is relevant in planning either as a method or a system. Hence, the concept of values-led approaches is related to the notion that planning should be based on human values in the form of a vision for action in delivering outcomes of land use and spatial development [45]. However, this does not entirely explain what is meant by a values-led approach to spatial planning.
