**1. Introduction**

The structure of the article is as follows: we first describe the framework of spatial disparities, the role of work, and the development of remote work in Section 1. In Section 2 we formulate and focus the research question. In Section 3 we describe the methodology through which we address the research question. In Section 4 we display the results of the survey, in Section 5 we discuss the findings from the survey with the literature and finally in Section 6 we formulate conclusions on the findings, limitations and an outlook.

The research on why, where and how urban and rural disparities exist addresses different causes and impacts, such as the differences in health [1,2], education [3] and social services. Most prominently in the urban-rural divide discourse is however the demographic disparity [4,5]. Processes of urbanization in developed and developing countries are showing more or less the same trend, characterized by massive urban growth, rural exodus, urban sprawling—the consumption of land or change of land use [6–9], traffic jams and many other problems, in different stages [10–12]. Such demographic changes result in significant problems in allocations and conversions of land use and land cover, and ultimately land rights and restrictions. Cities and urban agglomerations are growing and the number of their inhabitants are increasing since the first wave of industrialization, faster and faster in the last decades in nearly every part of the world—the so called urbanization process [13]. This leads to a higher demand of land for housing [14] on one hand and a shrinking proportion of living space per person [15,16], due to the rising rental and purchase prices, on the other hand. Meanwhile the living space per person in rural region is higher [17] and growing.

Stimulated by advancements in agricultural science, mechanization and industrialization, the workforce which is needed to feed the population, has been shrinking [18] since decades, especially in developed countries. This reflects the "push" for people to leave

**Citation:** Hölzel, M.; de Vries, W.T. Digitization as a Driver fur Rural Development—An Indicative Description of German Coworking Space Users. *Land* **2021**, *10*, 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/ land10030326

Academic Editor: Ruishan Chen

Received: 19 February 2021 Accepted: 16 March 2021 Published: 21 March 2021

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rural regions alongside beside the "pull" of urban regions and major cities [19]. Small rural towns and villages are also suffering from automobile traffic, the growth of commercial and residential areas on the outskirts of towns [20], and the simultaneous vacancy and closure of stores and pubs in inner-city areas—the so called Donut-Effect [21–24].

Germany is a country in an advanced stage of development [25,26]. Yet, in several fields of society (economy, democracy, science etc.) it exhibits an advanced stage in rural-urban disparity as well [27]. From the perspective of spatial planning, the problem of demographic disparities between rural and urban region has led to heated debates and contested assessment frameworks. The indicators which are used and the results related to spatial development vary, but the general insight is that spatial inequality is the manifestation of the disparity [28,29]. There is both spatial inequality between German regions [30] and there is a lack of spatial justice [31]. Other countries, such as France or the U.S.A. exhibit similar spatial disparity challenges [32,33], which leads internationally to polarization among EU-member states for example [34]. In Germany, political actors have gradually become aware of these trends and have therefore formulated a policy of "equal living conditions in urban and rural areas", which needs to be implemented at different administrative and institutional levels of the federal states. At a highest administrative level, the target "to preserve coherent living conditions" is formulated in the constitution of the German Federal Republic (GG Art. 72 Abs. 2 Nr. 3) from 1949 [35]. In 1994 the formulation was modified to "production of equivalent living conditions" [36]. In the coalition agreement of the present German administration the target of equivalent living conditions is articulated as well [37]. It led to a report of a government commission with programmatic recommendations for action [38] by the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community; the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture and Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. At the level of the European Union, support programs for rural development such as LEADER were introduced in the 1990s [39].

Taking into account that local economic strength, the labor market and incomes contribute to the local economy by the generation tax yields, the spending capacity for the people who live there, is the main driver for disparities and divide, the spatial distribution of local economic strength and work is essential for development and equivalent living conditions.

A key to bridge the urban rural divide could be the allocation of work from urban regions to rural regions. The possibility of remote work means that knowledge-based work is no longer necessarily tied to a specific location. A relatively new phenomenon is coworking spaces in which teleworking is performed.

This research aims to detect the habits and demands of users of rural coworking spaces and to estimate and assess the influence on local offers and services for mobility, consumption, shopping, catering, social and cultural. Based on these aims we formulate the following research questions:


#### **2. Literature Review**

Drivers of spatial disparities in Germany constitute the variations in regional economic strength, availability and spatial distribution of jobs [40], wages and corporate earnings which contribute to the local economy [41]. They entail prosperity, tax yields for the local and regional authorities and spending capacity for the people who live there [42]. Depending on the tax system regional authorities and municipalities receive financial inflows [43,44]. It seems that there is a general link between regional disparities caused by economic strength or weakness, jobs, income and tax yields [45].

Reasons for migration and the decision where to life rely on a complex decisionmaking process. From a conceptual standpoint, Ravenstein developed the concept of "push and pull" [46] as a trigger for migration. Widely referred are the 4 classes or types structured by Petersen [47], i.e., Primitive, Forced/Impelled, Mass, Free. In this case it can be focused on "Free" migration forced by higher aspirations or a rational choice, because migration due to natural disaster, war or collective behavior could be unconsidered do not take place at the moment in Germany [48].

These base factors play an important role in peoples' decisions where to live. Especially in Germany, rational choices in life and career planning are often made [49,50]. At crucial turning points in life, such as choices for education, in the professional domains and careers, types of jobs or founding a family [51] they make a decision with spatial impact [52]. The conditions in such rational choices are that before a family is founded, an income has to be ensured [53] and a professional career needs to be established [50]. Due to the availability of birth control pills and better education of women, women have become more independent and the decision to found a family has become a more 'rational choice' as opposed to discretionary or random choice or fate (going with the flow) [49]. Many of the complex decisions about the place where to live are directly or indirectly related or influenced by job or educational opportunities [54]. "Work as the basis of human existence" is examined and considered by sociologists and philosopher like Habermas and Marcuse [55]. From an economical perspective, especially classic economists such as Adam Smith and Karl Marx have considered such work decision rationalities [56,57].

In case of better education and job opportunities in cities und agglomerations— Ravenstein would call it a "pull" [46]—people moving there from rural, less dense and less promising—referring to Ravenstein a "push"—regions [51]. This leads to a kind of vicious circle of depopulation, mainly by people who aspire better job opportunities to combat their declining spending capacity, decreasing entrepreneurship opportunities and growing lack of public services in regions and municipalities outside of major and/or university cities [58]. Declining number of inhabitants in this regions could fall below the technical function threshold of facilities of general interest [59] and jeopardize their economic viability [48,60].

The growing rural urban disparities are described is various publications [27,61]. At the same time a majority of people answer the question where they want to live with "villages, small towns" and the "country side" as a survey on behalf of the BHW Bausparkasse (Building and loan association) [62,63] and the German public television and radio broadcaster ARD [64]. Some studies predict a trend that more people want to and will live in small towns and rural regions. This trends are titled e.g., "Progressive Provinzen" [65,66], "KoDorf" [67] or "Urbane Dörfer" [68].

With the contact limitation due to the Covid-19 pandemic the amount of work which is done remotely was increasing rapidly [69–71], in relation to moderate growth in the past years [72,73]. People indicate that they want to continue working remote [74]. That could amplify the trend people moving from major cities to more rural towns as it is indicated in reporting for Germany [75,76] and for North-America too [77,78]. However, some authors are still skeptical if that will baffle the main trend of urbanization [79].

Wouldn't that be an opportunity to combine the wish of more country life and rurality on the one hand and the need of educated, well paid people in rural regions on the other hand to reduce or turn around the trend of rural exodus? So-called "knowledge workers" [80,81], usually an academically educated professional with specific knowledge and skills, combined with a professional social network are currently demanded at the labor market [82]. Richard Florida describes this group of human resources as the 'creative class' [83]. Knowledge, thought or brainpower is mostly non-physical. Without physical demand this kind of work is easy to transfer to another place and transmit the result to another. Thought work or knowledge work often requires access to knowledge repositories, such as libraries, archives, etc. Knowledge management deals with the nature, management, distribution and generation of knowledge, among other things from an entrepreneurial perspective [84,85].

Before the internet was established and before an increasing amount of information was provided by websites, database, virtual libraries etc. accessing information and knowledge required a physical presence or process by entering a library or an archive, finding and reading the desired Information in a book, report or document—or obtain the requested information in some lists, schedules, directories or the like. Today, a huge amount of knowledge and information is accessible via the internet on server, databases, virtual and digital libraries [86] and through social knowledge networks [87].

The idea of remote work was already practiced in the early 1960s, be it however in an analog manner using paper and pencil from home [72]. In the late 1960s the concept of communication substitute transportation was developed [88] and expanded in the 1970s as a substitute for the increasing business travel [89] and eminently by the oil crises [90]. Remote work or Telecommuting [91], which in German is often called "Home Office", could be operated from home. Workers save time by avoiding the daily commute or also just for a single day per week or month by working from home. However, that kind of remote work entail some negative effects or problems. Homes often are missing a separate room equipped with ergonomic office furniture for remote work from home [92]. Beside this, working from home could stress people, due to the double task of work and family, if they live in a family home. If they live alone the can feel lonely and disregarded [93–95]. Coworking spaces as a place between home and work could be a "third place" as described by Oldenburg [96] enlarging social contacts.

An alternative to operate the remote work from home is to perform in a coworking space. The term "coworking" was invented in 1999 by Bernard DeKovan and the first "coworking space" was opened 2005 in San Francisco by Brat Neuberg [97,98]. A coworking space is a kind of office space where people work at the same location on their own project or tasks and have the opportunity to network, socialize or cooperate with their "space mates". The concept of coworking was well described by Clay Spinuzzi in 2012 [99]. Coworking spaces provides options of collaboration and knowledge sharing, brainstorming and creativity [100]. Janet Merkel described coworking as "Coworking is hence not just about working 'alone together' or 'alongside each other' in a flexible and mostly affordable office space. It is also underpinned by a normative cultural model that promotes five values: community, collaboration, openness, diversity, and sustainability." [101]. Coworking spaces were mostly founded by free lancers, but nowadays this form of work is increasingly used by employees as well [102]. While founder of early coworking spaces were often locally engaged people, in recent years large, professional operators such as WeWork and Mindspace have discovered the market for themselves and offer desks in coworking spaces [103].

The social isolation, which comes along with working remote from home, also underlined by research regarding the impact of Covid-19 pandemic [104], could be tackled by working together in a common space, such as a coworking spaces [105]. At this point we should clarify that in Germany working remote from home is called "homeoffice", "home office" or "Tele-Heimarbeit" [90]. Just working not at the employers office is called "Telearbeit" or in recent years "Mobiles Arbeiten" [106]. In recent years the size and number of coworking spaces is increasing [107,108], not only in cities in rural regions in Germany as well [109,110]. The trend of rural coworking spaces is taken up by policies and some promotion initiatives are introduced [111,112].

Distance and occupied time for the daily commute is increasing since years [113,114]. However, generally remote work save time by avoiding the commute which can be used for other purpose, as spending time with family, friends or for sports, being active in a local club. These benefits lead to different preferable results from the perspective of spatial planning. The main benefit could be a declining mobility demand and a reduction of traffic. The commute is increasing since years [115] an reached an average of 10.5 km [116] one way each day, notable the amount of a commute over 50 km increase more strongly [116]. Reducing the demand of mobility for work, the traffic systems (roads, public transport etc.) could be relieves by avoiding the daily commute, reduce it to occasional or periodical commute. If a presence for a meeting is need the employee can travel for this specific to be there in time e.g., 13:00 o'clock and avoid the rush hour in the morning. This could spread the traffic volume over time and diminish the pressure on the traffic systems [117,118].

Further the saved time could be spent with the family or with friends and improve the work-life-balance (WLB), but could also generate stress [106]. "Entgrenzung der Arbeit" delimitation of work is a broader topic of changes in the field of work to which remote work contributes substantial [94,119].

Not only because of online shopping, but also because of the high commuting share to distant office districts and the paths traveled, most of which do not lead past traditional village or small-town retail locations, town and city centers suffer from a lack of liveliness, a shrinking range of products and services, and consequently from vacancies [120–123]. Due to increasing distances between home and work, mobility in rural areas is dominated by the use of motor vehicles [124–126]. Another effect of the increasing distance between the location of residence and the location of work leads to multi-local lifestyle [127,128].

Recent publications see an opportunity for the revitalization of rural areas through coworking spaces [112], what probably support an allocation of knowledge work to small towns.

Coworking spaces, whether in inner cities or rural areas, usually offer different types of workplaces. The majority, however, are mostly open office structures, with different desks in an open space setting. Just a small amount of desks are located in smaller units as private, single or double offices [129]. The open structure encourage contact, exchange between the users, what is a major opportunity of coworking spaces related to working from home. However, this open structure have difficulties regarding the acoustic [130–132], if people want to work concentrated and undisturbed, make a phone call or participate in a videoconference [132,133].
