4.3.1. Eating Styles

Changes in eating styles are shown in Figure 4, and the results of the *t*-test are shown in Table 2. Before COVID-19, respondents ate out on average 6.31 times a week. However, the number of times respondents dined out fell to an average of 2.42 meals a week after the outbreak began and were replaced by other styles, including the consumption of ready-made meals (an increase of 1.1 times from 5.14 to 5.80 meals/week), use of food delivery services (an increase of 1.6 times from 2.42 to 3.90 meals/week), and eating at home (an increase of 1.3 times from 6.12 to 8.26 meals/week). This may be attributed to the government's social distancing and 'stay-at-home' policies to prevent the spread of the virus. The study also found a slight increase in the number of people cooking for themselves or with meals prepared by other family members.

**Table 2.** *p*-value of eating styles.


**Figure 4.** Eating styles before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (meals/week).

### 4.3.2. Food Consumption

Changes in food consumption in each category are shown in Figure 5, and the results of the *t*-test are shown in Table 3. The amount of food consumed by people in Thailand changed as they complied with the government's 'stay-at-home' orders. Because more food was consumed at home, they needed to purchase and stock up on greater amounts of rice and other ingredients than usual. The survey also found that respondents increased their consumption of meat, vegetables and fruit, eggs and dairy products, and readyto-eat food. In contrast, there was a significant reduction in the amount of seafood and alcoholic beverages consumed (Table 3). The decreased consumption of seafood may indicate respondents' strong health concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic, while the reduced consumption of alcoholic beverages may be due to temporary bans imposed by the governmen<sup>t</sup> during lockdowns.

**Table 3.** *p*-value of change in consumption.


### *4.4. Changes in Shopping Behaviour*

### 4.4.1. Purchasing Routes

The types of routes used to purchase food and other ingredients and the frequency in which they were used before and during the COVID-19 pandemic are shown in Figure 6, and the results of the *t*-test are shown in Table 4. Responses demonstrated that since the outbreak, there has been a considerable rise in the frequency of online shopping. Respondents also indicated that they have significantly reduced the number of times they visit temporary markets, mom-and-pop stores, street stalls, fresh markets, and supermarkets, although there has not been much change in the frequency of shopping at convenience stores and co-ops.

**Table 4.** *p*-value of frequency of purchases at different types of markets.


**Figure 6.** Purchasing routes and frequency before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (unit: number of respondents and percentages).

### 4.4.2. Food Delivery Service Trends

Similar to people around the world who are apprehensive about COVID-19, residents in Thailand also refrained from leaving home to shop for food. According to the results of the survey, respondents used food delivery services because this option allowed them to stay at home or in the office. A second factor cited was that respondents did not want to wait in long queues, while the third factor driving the increased use of food delivery services was the prevalence of discount coupons or promotions. Furthermore, respondents cited discount coupons and promotions, reasonable delivery costs, and user friendliness as the primary reasons for choosing online applications (Grab Food, Foodpanda, and LINEman). Moreover, according to the *t*-test results, respondents increasingly used applications for food delivery services, official restaurant websites, and phone calls when ordering food after the outbreak started. In addition, data from the survey showed variations in the types of frequently ordered foods, including an increase in the consumption of Thai, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean food, as well as fast food. The frequency of orders for desserts and beverages also rose slightly, although the frequency of orders for street food stayed flat, while that for Western cuisine fell.

### *4.5. Changes in Food and Food-Related Plastic Waste by Household* 4.5.1. Changes in Food Waste Generation

Changes in food waste generated in households are shown in Figure 7. Seventy-six percent of respondents indicated that they felt the amount of waste generated had increased and that most of this could be attributed to a rise in the use of online food delivery services and other ready-made meals.

**Figure 7.** Change in food waste generation.

### 4.5.2. Changes in Causes of Increased Food Waste Generation

Respondents were queried about the primary reasons for increased food waste generated during the COVID-19 pandemic and changes before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The top five reasons for food waste, as indicated by respondents, included products that had exceeded their expiration date, rotting/foul odours, excessive amounts of food, unappetising taste and deteriorated quality (Figure 8). Meanwhile, the results of the *t*-test indicated an increase in every cause of food waste since the outbreak (deteriorated quality, rotten/foul odours, exceeding expiration date, excessive amounts of food, taste, and no plans to consume further).

**Figure 8.** Trend of changes in main reasons for food waste.

The same question was investigated in an earlier study by the authors in 2018 [20,24], which identified the two dominant reasons for increased FW at home as exceeding expiration dates and deteriorated quality, while other reasons, such as excessive amounts, were not cited as a primary cause for FW. In contrast, the reasons mentioned in this survey during the

COVID-19 pandemic are more varied, with the top five listed as exceeding expiration dates, rotten food or foul odours, excessive amounts, unappetising taste, and deteriorated quality (Figure 7). Changes in the primary reasons for FW in households (decrease, increase, and no change) were also queried in this survey, with 'increase' higher than 'decrease' for all reasons (Figure 7), which may be related to online food delivery. For example, reasons selected by respondents (exceeding expiration dates and rotten/foul odours) may be due to a shorter shelf life for prepared food, while other reasons (such as that the food is unappetising) may be related to the inability to predict taste when using online food delivery services. Furthermore, excessive amounts of food became one of the primary reasons for increased FW in households during the pandemic. The inability to predict quantities when ordering online may have caused respondents to over-order, which in turn led to food waste. On the other hand, the results also indicated inadequate food planning and managemen<sup>t</sup> tendencies by consumers at home during the pandemic.

### 4.5.3. Waste Generated from the Use of Online Food Delivery Services

Respondents considered plastic bags (E), hot-and-cold food bags (B), plastic food containers (K), and food waste (A) to be the top four types of waste generated from the use of online food delivery services (Table 5). The results of Dunn's multiple comparisons test also showed that the top three types of waste (E, B, A) have significant statistical differences (Table 6).


**Table 6.** Dunn's multiple comparisons test for various waste types.


Note: The darker the background color, the lower the *p*-value indicating the significant differences among various waste types as the cause of environment problems due to the online food delivery service.

### *4.6. Environmental and Social Concerns and Efforts to Reduce Waste*

4.6.1. Environmental and Social Problems Caused by Food Delivery Services

In terms of the environmental and social problems caused by food delivery services, most respondents expressed concern about the increased amount of both food and plastic waste. Air pollution caused by the increased volume of traffic from the use of food delivery services was cited as a secondary concern, followed by higher food prices.

### 4.6.2. Concerns about Food Due to COVID-19

The top three concerns about COVID-19 and food include an upward swing in food prices (A), uncertainty about the safety of food and ingredients (G), and governmen<sup>t</sup> epidemic control measures that caused many restaurants to temporarily suspend or permanently shutter their businesses (H) (Table 7).

### **Table 7.** Average scores for concerns due to COVID-19.


### 4.6.3. Efforts to Reduce FW and PW

The survey showed that the top three actions taken by respondents to reduce food and plastic waste (Table 8) included advance meal planning, use of cloth bags or reuse of plastic bags when shopping, and regular checks of leftover food.

**Table 8.** Average score for actions to reduce food waste, plastic waste, and other waste.


### *4.7. Practical Implications of this Study*

There have been a few questionnaire-based academic studies on the impacts of COVID-19 on household FW, and Table 9 provides a summary of the survey sites, methods, and content, and the main outcomes that are relevant to this study. The resulting changes brought about by the pandemic have been confirmed by researchers at all stages, from purchasing, cooking and eating to disposal. Compared with the relevant outcomes of the existing literature, the results of this study mainly presented the following practical insights:

(1) The pandemic has had an impact on people's awareness towards health, as they have shown greater concern about nutritional balance. In looking at the categories of food that have been purchased and disposed, it is clear that people have consumed more fruits, fresh vegetables, and meat than usual [25–27]. The total amount of

food purchased, especially canned goods and frozen foods, also increased, as people may have experienced fear or anxiety about logistical systems as a result of food shortages [19,25,28]. Similar trends have been confirmed in Bangkok as well (see Section 4.3.2).


**Table 9.** Relevant international studies and main outcomes on household food and plastic waste during the COVID-19 pandemic.



**Table 9.** *Cont.*

### **5. Policy Implications and Potential Intervention Actions**

The authors' previous study on the FW situation in Bangkok before COVID-19 [20] found that the sources of FW are widely distributed throughout the supply chain due to the higher frequency of use of food services and ready-made products and diversification of diets and eating habits. However, due to inadequate managemen<sup>t</sup> and insufficient detailed regulations and laws, the amount of FW generated is on the rise, with most mixed together with MSW and landfilled. In this study in Bangkok, we found that the COVID-19 pandemic shifted the main source of FW from businesses to households and that both food and plastic packaging waste from households rose due to the increased use of online food delivery services. Post-pandemic, FW and PW generated by households in Bangkok are expected to continue to rise due to hygiene concerns, infection prevention measures, and rebounds in economic activity. At the same time, online shopping is expected to grow even after the pandemic, as the Thai governmen<sup>t</sup> is partnering with private financial institutions to develop a platform for online shopping to promote digitalisation and cashless shopping.

Food waste and plastic pollution are viewed as two key drivers for achieving the Paris Agreement and the SDGs, but the COVID-19 pandemic may intensify challenges for FW and PW. Therefore, we believe that the policy implications proposed in the previous study [20] must be further strengthened, aiming to: (1) develop comprehensive policies along the entire supply chain; (2) enhance concrete implementation plans with clear targets for reducing and recycling waste based on 3R strategies; (3) develop practical source separation and collection systems; (4) promote the application of appropriate waste managemen<sup>t</sup> technologies together with 'recycling loop' business models; (5) promote platforms for stakeholder collaboration and community-based interventions; (6) create uniform standards and understanding of 'date labels'; (7) encourage the provision and consumption of smaller portions; (8) utilise health as a driving force to motivate public concern; and (9) develop a policy mix targeting consumers' daily lifestyles and social practices. In addition to these policies, more intense efforts will be needed to achieve the SDGs. Based on the results of this study, consumer food planning and management, online platforms/delivery services, and the formation of local circular economy frameworks could be considered as three important intervention points for reducing waste and achieving more effective food and plastic waste managemen<sup>t</sup> practices. Further discussion on these three intervention points is as follows.

#### *5.1. Improve Consumers' Capabilities to Plan, Manage Food and Cook without Waste*

The survey found that (1) the number of people cooking and eating at home rose during the pandemic (4.3.1); (2) the excessive amount of food was identified as one of the top reasons for food waste (4.5.2) as a result of poor food management; and (3) the top two actions that respondents would take to reduce food and plastic waste included meal preparation and regularly checking leftover food (4.6.3). These responses may present governments, the food industry, and businesses with an opportunity to support people's abilities to plan, manage, and cook food to reduce the amount of food that is leftover or wasted at home. Not much effort is being implemented by the Thai national government and Bangkok local governmen<sup>t</sup> on these issues, which needs to be addressed. Qian et al. [31] show evidence to support this result, as people who prepare their own food demonstrate more concern for food managemen<sup>t</sup> and food waste than those who do not cook. Meanwhile, routines related to planning food purchases and their preparation are highly influenced by the skills or confidence that consumers have in their ability to perform such activities. Cooking classes, refrigerator cameras, shopping lists, and information campaigns on reducing food waste have been widely proven through case studies worldwide to have positive effects, though credibility needs to be further verified [12]. Additionally, Hebrok and Heidenstrøm [36] identified decisive moments and contexts for food waste prevention and discussed examples of measures that could be further explored by applying a practice-oriented approach to food waste drivers through food managemen<sup>t</sup> practices. Furthermore, preparing and ordering excessive amounts of food might be the result of difficulties in estimating the amount of food, so an important measure to avoid this could be to provide hints on enhancing consumers' food planning and managemen<sup>t</sup> capabilities and cooking skills, thereby reducing the increased amount of food waste generated during COVID-19. For example, the food industry could indicate the number of servings on food packaging instead of weight, which may help consumers while purchasing. Similar suggestions will effectively help consumers manage food in households, such as by packaging smaller portions and showing consumers how to manage uneaten food and extend expiration dates. Social media platforms, including television programmes, recipe apps, and cooking videos will also play a role in improving the ability of people who may lack skills or have few ideas about what to cook. In a similar fashion, supermarkets may also be able to provide suggestions to consumers about food preparation by displaying the ingredients needed for certain meals.

### *5.2. Develop Eco-Friendly Online Platforms and Food Delivery Services*

The rapid expansion of e-commerce and online food delivery services is a visible change that has occurred as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study shows that during the pandemic, most food services shifted to online food delivery, resulting in an increase in both FW and PW. Although online food delivery services benefit society as a whole in terms of lowering the number of potential routes for infectious diseases, while simultaneously providing a certain level of comfort to consumers and stimulating economic activity, there is a risk that incentives may encourage a rise in the use of these services, leading to overconsumption and other adverse behaviours in terms of FW and PW. Therefore, the key to preventing and reducing both FW and PW is determining how to build eco-friendly online platforms/food delivery services and business models to encourage consumers to act in environmentally friendly ways.

The temporary relaxation of bans on the use of single-use plastics during the pandemic may indicate a breakdown in sustainable patterns of behaviour. To mitigate the problem of plastic waste, research and development in materials science to streamline plastic packaging should be emphasised for sustainable development [37]. Consideration should also be given to establishing more sustainable options, such as deposit refund schemes, or default options, such as delivering food in reusable containers. At the same time, governments must institute educational curriculums and communication campaigns to highlight and promote environmentally friendly behaviour.

Meanwhile, along with the expansion of green food delivery options and online shopping, access to food has become easier and more efficient, which could lead to lower GHG emissions and achieve low-carbon lifestyles. Besides changes in shopping habits, Galanakis [29] points out that digital technologies, including information and communication technologies (ICT), apps, the Internet of things (IoT) platforms, big data and artificial technology, will enable food to be delivered precisely when demand arises, potentially leading to a reduction in FW. Additionally, digital platforms such as food rescue apps can be used as a mechanism for mobilising the active participation of stakeholders along the entire supply chain. Therefore, the system should be designed in advance to maximise the numerous synergies between the promotion of online platforms and the prevention of FW and PW, as well as to minimise trade-offs.

In a positive development, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment has joined together with private entities, including six food delivery platforms such as Food Panda, Grab Food, Gojek, and LalaMove in a push to reduce the use of plastic under the concept of the 'New Normal Food Delivery with Environmental Care'. Food delivery services involved in this initiative will add an opt-in button to their applications that will allow customers to decline single-use plastics as well as work with their restaurants to incorporate more environmentally friendly packaging (glass jars, metal straws, non-plastic bags, etc.).

### *5.3. Promote a Circular Economy via Localised Supply Chains to Improve Food Safety and Well-Being*

A system-level approach to address issues surrounding FW, PW, and MSW is needed. Circular economy strategies have opened up new avenues for potential measures to reduce FW [38]. The concept of the 'circular economy' is central to European environmental thinking and policy-making, and the transition to a more circular economy is a major goal towards developing a sustainable, low-carbon, resource-efficient, and competitive economy in the EU [39]. Food waste and plastics are two of five priority sectors in the EU Circular Economy Action Plan, which helps contain all materials within infinite loops through sustainable consumption and production and sound waste management, including greater recycling and re-use, and also by creating a market for secondary raw materials. The concept of a circular economy also encompasses waste prevention in the first place, which is positioned at the top of the waste hierarchy.

As transportation and logistics have been highly restricted during the pandemic, the use of local food supply chains to improve food safety and revitalise the local economy has been an effective measure to counter COVID-19. Based on a systematic literature review study on COVID-19, food systems, and the circular economy by Giudice et al. [1], the 'localisation' of food systems might present more resilient and sustainable solutions: localised food systems reduce waste and stress nutrition; combining local and seasonal elements in short supply chains reduces storage and transportation needs, provides a better supply–demand balance, creates more transparency, improves tracking capability, and contributes to waste reduction; and consumers seem to place higher value on food purchased in local markets. The localisation of food systems will also help reduce the amount of plastic packaging waste and provide fiscal security to fight similar pandemics in the future.
