**5. Discussion**

We designed a land use conflict identification framework based on land use multisuitability, land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs, which can effectively and accurately identify land use conflicts. The areas with strong land use conflict are mainly distributed in the urban–rural transition zones, which is consistent with the results of previous studies [31,32]. However, we also find that the suburbs of cities and towns in the north of Licheng and Zhangqiu districts are also the areas where strong land use conflicts are concentrated. This is an interesting finding, which differs from previous studies. On the one hand, Jinan has implemented the "East Expansion" development strategy in recent years, and the urbanization process in eastern Jinan, including in Licheng and Zhangqiu districts, has advanced rapidly, and land use conflicts have intensified. On the other hand, the north of Licheng and Zhangqiu districts have flat terrains, low incidence of geological disasters, fewer land resource limiting factors, high land use suitability, large regional populations, large GDP and high diversity of land resource demand, resulting in a high intensity of land use conflict. However, it is worth noting that the per capita construction land area and per capita cultivated land area in these regions are both large, and land resource scarcity is low. There is a certain level of inefficient land use and even land resource waste, which aggravate regional land use conflicts.

The land use multi-suitability in Shanghe county and Jiyang district is high, but the intensity of land use conflict in most areas is not. This indicates that land use multisuitability is the premise and basis of land use conflict, but it is not the only determinant. Even if land is suitable for multiple uses, it does not necessarily produce strong land use conflicts. Land use multi-suitability, land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs are three important determinants of land use conflicts, which together determine the occurrence and intensity of land use conflicts. However, previous studies focused only on

the multi-suitability of, or competition over, land, and few studies have considered land use multi-suitability, land resource scarcity and human demand diversity simultaneously. In conclusion, compared with previous studies, the land use conflict identification framework constructed in this study has obvious advantages in the effective and accurate identification of land use conflicts.

The land use conflict identification and evaluation index system we have constructed here has the following advantages. First, the theoretical basis is sufficient. Using relevant studies and field research experience, we analyzed the root causes of land use conflicts and designed a conceptual framework for land use conflict identification. An evaluation index system for land use conflict identification was constructed by selecting evaluation indices from three variables: land use multi-suitability, land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs. Second, the land use conflict evaluation framework can identify the intensity of land use conflict on a grid scale, providing more accurate location information for land use decision making, hence contributing to the accurate land management.

Land use conflict arises from competing land uses. The theory of multifunctional land use can be used as a reference [16,33] and is based on the premise that the same parcel of land can have a dominant function while also having a variety of other functions. Based on the ecological service value trade-off/synergy theory and coupling coordination theory [28,34], the leading function should be rationally selected based on local conditions, and the tradeoff and coordination among different functions should be carried out to promote the coordinated development of multiple functions.

This study had some limitations. First, due to the limitation in the statistical unit of social and economic data, the evaluation unit of land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs was set at the county administrative division level and was not accurate to specific plots, reducing the accuracy of land use conflict identification. Second, this study evaluated the land use conflict in Jinan in 2018, but did not analyze the spatial–temporal evolution of the characteristics of land use conflicts. Finally, the ultimate purpose of land use conflict identification is to mediate land use conflicts. There are many more parameters (social, political, communicational, psychological, etc.) determining conflicts. Such a factor, e.g., is the ambiguity/unclearness of laws and policy contents [35]. Another one could be redistributive policies, uncertainty, etc. This study only presented a superficial discussion on the topic, and further research is needed. Therefore, future research should focus on using grid scale social and economic data to quantitatively evaluate the spatiotemporal dynamic characteristics of land use conflicts and to explore effective measures to resolve land use conflicts.

### **6. Conclusions**

Considering land use multi-suitability, land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs, this paper proposes a new framework to identify land use conflicts and evaluates land use conflicts in Jinan. Land use conflicts in Jinan were dominated by medium conflicts (43.89%). Strong and weak land use conflicts accounted for 25.21% and 30.90%, respectively. Spatially, land use conflicts were high in the north and low in the south. Strong land use conflicts are concentrated in the urban–rural transition zones of Tianqiao, Huaiyin and Shizhong districts and in the northern parts of Licheng and Zhangqiu districts. Land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs have an important impact on land use conflicts. The new land use identification framework proposed in this paper can effectively identify land use conflicts. This method can be applied to other areas and is of great significance to promote the rational utilization of regional land resources. However, we only evaluated land resource scarcity and diversity of human needs at the county level using socio-economic data. How to accurately depict land resources scarcity and the diversity of human needs in order to improve the accuracy of land use conflict identification is the focus of future research.

**Author Contributions:** G.D. contributed to all aspects of this work; Y.G. and S.P. conducted data processing and analysis; H.J. and C.S. wrote the draft and obtained funding support. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant number 2019YFC0507802, National Natural Sciences Foundation of China, grant number 71673091, The Natural Sciences Foundation of China, grant number M-0342, National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 41801173, Doctoral Fund of Shandong Jianzhu University, grant number XNBS1803.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the author.

**Acknowledgments:** Thanks to anonymous experts for their suggestions.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
