**1. Introduction**

The production of mechanical force was one of the fundamental human demands in the transformation process that took homo sapiens from an animal in nature like the others to the construction of megacities and technological mastery [1].

The process of producing mechanical force went through several phases. The domestication of animals represented an essential step in automation and the increase in labour productivity, necessary for changing the way of life from hunter and gatherer to farmer/shepherd [2]. With the use of other domesticated animals, homo sapiens could perform an activity without the need to use muscular strength directly [3].

The production of mechanical force was primarily responsible for the first two great industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution began in England around 1750–1760, lasting until somewhere between 1820 and 1840, and was marked by the development

**Citation:** de Souza, D.F.; Salotti, F.A.M.; Sauer, I.L.; Tatizawa, H.; de Almeida, A.T.; Kanashiro, A.G. A Performance Evaluation of Three-Phase Induction Electric Motors between 1945 and 2020. *Energies* **2022**, *15*, 2002. https:// doi.org/10.3390/en15062002

Academic Editor: Ryszard Palka

Received: 10 February 2022 Accepted: 7 March 2022 Published: 9 March 2022

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and application of the steam engine in industrial manufacturing processes [4]. The second industrial revolution replaced steam engines or gas engines with electric motors [5].

In the late 19th century, new electric motors were more economical. They required less maintenance, took up less space, ran at a more uniform speed, and allowed a cleaner environment [6]. Within just one generation after its introduction in the 1880s, the electric motor drive had replaced steam as the preferred means of providing motive power (Figure 1) [7].

**Figure 1.** Percentage of mechanical drive manufacturing from hydraulic power, steam engines, and electric motors per year. Source: adapted from [7,8].

With large-scale electric motors electrifying industrial plants, the industrial plants gained flexibility. It was no longer necessary to be close to a stream in order to use mechanical energy from water or a coal mine for direct use of coal in a steam engine [9].

The mechanical force arising from water (Figure 2a) or steam engines (Figure 2b) was generally available from a single central axis and later, when subdivided, ran the entire length of the factory, with high losses in the gears and the emission of noise and vibrations throughout the industrial plant. In some cases, the engines served different industrial buildings. The connections made by belts and gears could drive hammers, presses, looms, and other machines, transferring mechanical energy horizontally between walls and vertically through industrial floors [10]. Due to the large distances and inevitable friction in these units, 60% to 80% of the transmitted energy was lost [11]. Everything required continuous lubrication by thousands of drip lubricators, with workers having direct access to the rotating parts, thus remaining exposed to high possibilities of work accidents [12].

Electric motors proved to be more efficient and more economical, and they reduced reliance on the complex mechanical shaft, pulley, and belt systems to distribute the mechanical drive from the central plant throughout the plant. The drive was located close to the load, and the energy was transferred by small electrical conductors [17] (Figure 2c).

**Figure 2.** An industrial organization based on: (**a**) mechanical drive from hydraulic energy; (**b**) steam engines; and (**c**) electric motors. Source: [13–16].

The motors could reliably be fractionally coupled to the mechanical load with the electric drive, making it possible to establish an industrial flow in the manufacturing process. By splitting the mechanical drives, flexibility in maintenance was also gained, and islands with independent operation were possible. During a breakdown, it was not necessary to stop the entire plant. This freedom revolutionized industrial design and layout and provided the possibility of optimization in process control and better working conditions, leading to significant advances in productivity [8,18,19].

Currently (21st century), electric motors are the driving force of modern industrial society. Electric motors drive domestic refrigerators, pump water for heating, and drive ventilation, enabling the distribution of compressed air and the movement of loads on conveyor belts, in addition to keeping cities' water supplies flowing [20].

Several electric motor technologies have been developed. However, only three have become mainstream in industrial stationary electric drives. They are:


#### **Table 1.** Characteristics of SCIMs.


SCIMs are seen as having undergone little change from their development to the present day, especially when compared to the obvious advances in electronics, communication, and information technologies. Hence, this research sought answers to the following questions:

