**1. Introduction**

For nearly thirty years, systematic growth of globalization and internationalization processes have been observed in the world [1–3]. These processes, through penetration into most markets, have resulted in intensive economic growth in most of the world's economies and a related increase in the level of human development [4–9]. It should be emphasized that along with the increase in ties between economies, there was an unprecedented increase in investment, innovation, production, and significant institutional changes, both at the national and international level [10–16]. Significant changes in production have resulted in an increase in energy demand in all world economies [17,18]. The existing resources of energy from non-renewable sources are slowly becoming insufficient, and their use is becoming more and more expensive and has an increasingly negative impact on the natural environment. All this, combined with the change in consumer patterns and changes in the labor markets [19–27], has influenced the energy transformation currently being carried out in most countries [28–32]. The subject of the article is part of the problem of the energy transformation of the EU countries. It should be emphasized that the energy transformation in the community was strengthened institutionally, where all countries are obliged to follow the directions of the community climate policy. The short-term and long-term measures taken under the European Green Deal are to lead to a situation where all member states are to have climate-neutral economies with zero gas emissions [33,34].

One of the leading tools for an effective energy transformation is to diversify the energy sources used, with RES being the dominant ones [35]. This means that for most countries, the energy transition in EU member states refers to the shift from one dominant energy to energy based on RES [35–38]. The article poses a research problem in the form of whether achieving climate-neutral energy independence under the European Green Deal is possible at the regional level. The answer to this question seems to be very important. A positive answer will mean that all member states will be able to achieve all the objectives of the European Green Deal with a properly applied economic development strategy. The analysis of energy independence at the regional level was carried out on the example of a selected NUTS 2 region, the Greater Poland Voivodeship in Poland. The analysis was carried out in two aspects. The first aspect concerns the analysis of the current energy situation in the voivodeship in the context of the bottom-up initiative of energy transformation [39,40]. The second aspect concerns the assessment of the energy potential from RES.

Poland is a country where the majority of electric power and heat is generated with hard coal and brown coal (lignite) combustion. The limited amount of natural resources, increasing prices of fossil fuels, and environmental pollution are the major reasons for the use of RES. RES cannot be exhausted, are locally available for each country and, thus, do not lead to any economic or military conflict [41].

Currently, the greatest amount of renewable energy is generated by the following voivodeships: Kuyavian–Pomeranian [42], West Pomeranian [43] Pomeranian [44], Greater Poland [45], and Łódzkie [46]. The total RES capacity in Poland is about 9 GW (Figure 1). The Greater Poland Voivodeship, located in central Poland, has grea<sup>t</sup> potential to develop all types of RES [47].

Poland is obliged by the EC to add RES to the energy mix. In 2020, in Poland, the coal-based share in the energy mix went below 70% for the first time. The EC's Renewable Energy Directives show the main goals and acts that emphasized the necessity to turn to a more sustainable and environmental economy. The directives have established the specific RES shares in the energy mix as targets. The EC's Renewable Energy Directive from 2009 predefined three goals to be achieved by 2020—reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20%; (2) increase the share of renewable energy to at least 20% of consumption; (3) achieve energy savings of 20% or more. Additionally, all EU countries should achieve a 10% share of renewable energy in their transport sector [48]. This EC Renewable Energy Directive was revised in 2018, establishing the new 32% renewable energy (share in energy mix) target by 2030 [49]. The proposed EC Renewable Energy Directive from 2021 established a 40% renewable energy target by 2030. The "Energy Roadmap" adopted by the EC in 2011

presents a strategic plan leading to the transition to a competitive low-carbon economy by 2050, with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions by 96–99% compared to 1990 [50].

**Figure 1.** Capacity of RES in Poland (own study based on [47]).

The formal energy transformation in the EU was mainly a top-down initiative in the beginning. This means that the regions followed the formally established national and EC directions. The EC's "Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change", introduced in 2013, includes the actions that must also be taken at the local, regional, and national levels in order to counteract the effects of climate change [51]. The most recent EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change, established in 2021 empowered the local-level adaptation approach, focusing on individual citizens. The national response to the renewable energy directives were three documents established by the Polish government. Polands Energy Policy until 2030, constituted in 2009, underlines the commitment to develop the use of RES [52]. Poland's National Energy and Climate Plan for years 2021–2030 [53], prepared as a fulfillment of the obligation set out in Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action, established a 21–23% renewable energy target by 2030 (a 10-year plan). Prepared in 2021, Polands Energy Policy until 2040 [54] predefines a 32% renewable energy target to be obtained by 2040, claiming that "The local level is the bedrock of adaptation".

In this paper, we underline the necessity of creating a well-organized and prepared bottom-up initiative of energy transformation, which starts within regions. Such an approach opens up more possibilities for energy transformation in the regions and automatically contributes to the Polish energy transformation. This does not mean that the RES regional policy is inconsistent with the Polish governmen<sup>t</sup> policy and EU policy. It only underlines the necessity of performing RES transformation at the regional level more independently and equitably, taking into account the local context, such as the people's awareness of climate change, the fairness of the decision-making process, and trust in the local governmen<sup>t</sup> authorities, which includes the overall evaluation of costs, risks, and benefits of RES in the region. This approach should be integrated with the national and EU RES objectives and primarily enhance the quality of life in the region.

Attention should be paid to the role of business angels and sustainable start-ups, which can be translated into the effective implementation of the next stages of the energy transition and development of the RES sector [55–57]. Obtaining financing for successful sustainable start-ups, which have established their market position, is also possible in the capital market, where an important issue is the choice of an appropriate time for the company to enter the capital market [58–61].

At the local level, energy justice plays a key role in shaping the local community's approach to energy transformation. Energy justice is defined in Poland as providing new development opportunities to regions and communities most affected by the negative effects of the transformation in connection to the low-carbon energy transition, providing new jobs and building new industries that participate in transforming the energy sector. The low-emission energy transformation envisaged in Polands Energy Policy until 2040 plans and initiates modernization changes for the entire economy, guaranteeing energy security and ensuring a fair distribution of costs and protection of the most vulnerable social groups [62]. According to this document, the energy transformation will be


According to Carley and Konisky [39], "the comprehensive energy justice framework can be said to include energy availability and access, affordability, due process, accountability and transparency, and both inter- and intra-generational equity". Such an approach points out that justice energy transformation comprises the fair distribution of benefits and burdens in the community, fair and transparent energy decision-making processes and procedures, understanding the historical context and related inequalities (and acts to reconcile them), and restorative justice treated as a tool to correct injustices [39]. The importance of consequentiality and trust in institutions on willingness-to-pay estimates towards the expansion of renewable energy is specifically important at the local level and has been analyzed and underlined in Germany by Oehlman and Meyerhoff [63]. Interpersonal and social trust in authorities has been proven to be related to community opinion on renewable energy in the United Kingdom. Energy justice and energy security are the base of an efficient and fair energy transformation in the region, as they shape the local community environment and opinions on renewable energies. This means that the community should have confirmation that the regional energy security and equity will be maintained. This includes maintaining a decent lifestyle and trust in the regional authorities and their decision-making processes.

A study performed by Rogers et. al. [64] examined the rural community perceptions of local renewable energy. The results stated that in the United Kingdom, "the communitybased renewable energy projects, with high levels of public participation, are more likely to be accepted by the public than top-down development of large-scale schemes and may bring additional benefits such as increased engagemen<sup>t</sup> with sustainable energy issues."

The studies performed by Zoellner et al. [65], Upham, and Shackley [66] demonstrated the roles of justice and trust in local authorities in the shaping of the public acceptance of renewable energy developments in Germany and the United Kingdom (accordingly).

The EC European Green Deal Plan includes the European Green Deal Investment Plan (EGDIP), which specifies the Just Transition Mechanism. The mechanism comprises the tools ensuring a fair and just transition to a green economy on the regional level and supports citizens of the regions (that are most impacted by the transition). The Greater Poland Voivodeship is one of six coal regions in Poland, and the first one that has an elaborated primary version of the Territorial Just Transition Plan with a specifically defined concept of the Just Transformation of the Eastern Greater Poland Voivodeship. This concept reinforced a strong bottom-up content-related emphasis in preparation for the energy transformation plan in the region, taking into account the local social and economic environment. The transition plan and the concept of just transformation have been prepared and will be followed with the collaboration with and the mutual support of public and private entities, the science sector, and the local community. Both documents were considered by public consultation. The plan and concept for the Greater Poland Voivodeship is to maintain the energy characteristic of the region, become the national leader of the green transformation in Poland, and achieve climate neutrality as early as 2040. What is more, the Greater Poland Voivodeship aims to create a well-known brand for

the region, called the "Greater Poland Voivodeship Energy Valley" (based on RES) in the document. To do so, the region has to be RES independent.

Fuel cells are devices that convert the chemical energy of fuel and oxidants into electricity. All types of fuel cells, unlike traditional methods, generate electricity without burning fuel and oxidants. This allows for avoiding the emissions of harmful compounds, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons (which cause the formation of holes in the ozone), and carbon oxides. In modern fuel cells, the most frequently used fuel is hydrogen (H2), while the oxidant is oxygen (O2), supplied to the device in its pure form or together with atmospheric air. However, this does not mean that no other fuels are used in fuel cells. Currently, intensive research is underway on cells powered directly by methanol CH3OH and carbon (in various forms). The fuel may also be CH4 methane, HCOOH formic acid, N2H4 hydrazine, and NH3 ammonia. Hydrogen is the fuel of choice for most cells due to its high reactivity in the presence of suitable catalysts, the possibility of producing it from hydrocarbons, and its high energy density when stored in a liquid form under high pressure at a low temperature. Unfortunately, although hydrogen is one of the most popular elements on Earth, it is mainly found in chemicals, primarily water. Hydrogen can be obtained from water by electrolysis, but unfortunately, a significant amount of energy must be invested in the process. Therefore, other sources of hydrogen have been sought and tested. In addition to obtaining hydrogen, an additional problem is its storage. The storage and transport of hydrogen require prior compression to a certain pressure or reduction to a liquid form [67–69].

The principle of the operation of fuel cells is the same as in galvanic cells, that is, batteries. However, unlike galvanic cells, fuel and oxidants are supplied externally in fuel cells. Thanks to this, they do not have such a limited time of use as traditional batteries. Fuel cells consist of two electrodes—an anode and cathode. The electrodes are separated by an electrolyte in liquid or solid form. Hydrogen (pure or as a component of air) is fed continuously to the anode, while oxygen (pure or as a component of air) is fed, also continuously, to the cathode. The ions must flow freely between the electrodes. In fuel cells, electrons reach the cathode, bypassing the electrolyte, through an external electrical circuit, making the cell a source of electromotive force. The said electrolyte is responsible for the transport of ions between the electrodes. For this reason, it must be a good ion conductor and at the same time, the weakest electron conductor. If the electrolyte did not meet even one of the requirements, the entire cell would not be able to function properly. The chemical reaction that takes place in the cell consists of breaking down the hydrogen into a proton and an electron at the anode, and then joining the reactants at the cathode. Electrochemical processes are accompanied by the flow of an electron from the anode to the cathode, bypassing the impermeable membrane. The electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen produces electricity, water, and heat [67–69].

In the future, fuel cells will be an integral part of the hydrogen fuel industry. Fuel cells are capable of supplying enough energy to meet the global energy needs. These technologies are very efficient and safe for the environment [67–69].

The main aim of the study was to analyze the possibilities of obtaining the RES independence by the Greater Poland Voivodeship. Achieving the goal consisted of determining the potential of energy for the selected NUTS 2 region, which was determined with the assumption of using only renewable sources. The claim of RES independence is an important factor to continue the process of introducing just and bottom-up coal region energy transformation opportunities.

In order to calculate the potential of renewable energy in the Greater Poland Voivodeship, the authors used GIS methods. Geographic information systems enable the spatial positioning of point, linear, and surface structures in relation to the potential of RES; these could respectively be geological boreholes, watercourses, or in the case of the surface, the total area of land excluded from a wind turbine location. As a result of including these structures into the coordinate system, it is possible to know the conditions of their positioning as well as of the surrounding area, such as the natural environment or technical

infrastructure. In addition, the database and calculated parameters for each structure enable the measurement of the RES potential for the analyzed area.

The authors wanted to show that the selected region and, consequently, the entire country, in which energy is produced mainly from coal, has enough RES potential to cover 100% of its energy needs.

The authors used the geographical information system (GIS) method to calculate the technical potential of RES in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. For this purpose, meteorological data on wind speeds in the region were obtained. These data were extrapolated for a height of 100 m (this is the most common height of turbines in the voivodeship). We were the first to compare the technical potential of wind energy for the "10H" and "5H" distances (which will probably be introduced in Poland).

In the case of solar energy, both solar conditions and the availability of roofs were taken into account (roof installations do not take up space).

In the case of biomass, it was assumed that only waste biomass would be used for energy purposes. It was assumed that water power in the Voivodeship should develop in terms of the already existing dams, such as locks or weirs.

Geothermal energy in the Voivodeship should be based on the already existing boreholes (a map has been drawn up), primarily for heat production.

The conducted research is undoubtedly innovative in this sense. Implementation of the goal will allow for the assessment of the possibility of achieving the goals of the European Green Deal at the regional level, which can undoubtedly be translated into the possibility of achieving these goals both at the national level and at the EU level. The energy mix of renewable energy should be in the Greater Poland Voivodeship as well as in all of Poland; only in this way can 100% RES be achieved with the sustainable development of the economy.
