4.2.1. Buffalo

In addition to a significant contribution to total milk production, buffalo are the major contributors to meat production in Nepal. Buffalo meat (cara or buff) accounts for nearly 60% of the national total meat consumption [20]. In general, male and unproductive female buffalo are slaughtered for meat consumption, whereas reproductive females are used for milk production. The female buffalo are mostly culled due to infertility, repeated breeding, and disease problems such as mastitis. With cultural transformation (relaxation of traditional norms and values for eating behaviors), so-called higher caste people like Brahmin have also started consuming cara meat in Nepal, thus increasing the overall demand for buffalo meat in recent decades. Additionally, cara meat is cheaper than other meat sources such as chevon, mutton, and chicken. Thus, in the future, it can be anticipated that the demand for buffalo meat will continue to increase, along with growing purchasing power among the lower strata in society. Therefore, it is recommended considerable strategic emphasis be placed on buffalo production to increase total meat production in the future.

#### 4.2.2. Goat and Sheep

Small ruminants (goats and sheep) are vital components of farming systems in the developing world, and Asian countries account for about 57% and 23% of the world populations of goats and sheep, respectively [26]. In Nepal, goats are a crucial element of agricultural systems. Many farmers raise goats primarily for meat purposes (animal protein), and goats serve as an important source of income and savings in many rural families. Historically, goats have been well integrated into a typical crop–livestock mixed farming system, particularly in the hilly regions, due to their ability to capitalize available plant biomass resources as feeds in mountain terrains. However, goats are also raised in the lower plain (Terai) regions of the country.

The total production of goa<sup>t</sup> meat continues to grow in Nepal. Such an increase in production appears to be driven primarily by the rise in the population of goats, as recent trends indicate (Figures 1 and 3) [20], and to some extent also by improved feeding. It is estimated that goats contribute about 20% of the total Nepalese meat production. A large number of goats (~15% of the total population) is imported from India to fulfill the national demand for goa<sup>t</sup> meat [27]. In Nepal, there are mainly four indigenous goa<sup>t</sup> breeds: Chyangra, Sinhal, Khari, and Terai, where Khari is the predominant breed accounting for ~50% of the total goa<sup>t</sup> population [28]. Although breed-specific production traits exist, all goa<sup>t</sup> breeds generally have low productivity in Nepal, which is associated mainly with poor managemen<sup>t</sup> practices. Chyangra and Sinhal are primarily found in the high hills and mountainous regions. They are managed under a migratory system, where animals graze alpine pasture areas during the summer months but are allowed to graze on the lower fallow crop fields and forests during periods of extreme winter conditions. Khari and Terai breeds are found primarily in the lower hills and Terai regions. Both of these breeds are generally managed under a sedentary system, where animals are allowed to graze for a few hours during the day in the nearby forest, fallow land, and pasture areas [28], complemented by feed brought to them in a cut-and-carry system. Several imported goa<sup>t</sup> breeds are also being raised throughout the country, particularly Boer goats, which have become popular in recent times. In this context, the improvement of local indigenous breeds, the establishment of commercial farms with a higher stock density, and the introduction of proper nutritional strategies for sustained availability of feeding materials are the three key areas the Nepalese goa<sup>t</sup> sector should focus on to improve the productivity of goats and fulfill the national demand for meat and milk from this species.

Sheep also constitute an important component of the Nepalese agricultural system, particularly in the Himalayan regions, where they serve as a source of meat, wool, and cash income. Most sheep in Nepal are reported to be of region-specific native breeds: Bhaynglung in the Transhimalaya, Baruwal in the mountains and Kage in the hills, and Lampuchhre in the Terai region. Nevertheless, sheep production is primarily limited to the upper Himalayan areas and adapted to the local climatic conditions, where sheep (like goats) are managed under a migratory or transhumant system. Sheep are well adapted to the local climatic conditions of the mountainous region with a diet primarily based on alpine pasture [29]. The sheep population and total sheep meat production have sharply declined in the past in Nepal (Figure 1 and Figure S1A) [20] which could, in part, be associated with the poor performance of local breeds, seasonal deficit of feed resources, and a lack of efficient market channels for sheep meat and wool [30]. Increased urbanization and migration of youth from villages to cities and abroad in search of employment may also have played a role. Since sheep are a crucial component of mountain agriculture, it is critical to develop efficient managemen<sup>t</sup> and marketing strategies to establish a more profitable and sustainable livestock production, which can sustain a livelihood for people and encourage young people to reside in the high mountain regions, poorly suited for other agricultural activities.
