**1. Introduction**

Pedestrians are among the groups of traffic participants who are very often deprecated by motorised participants, albeit a very important one in road traffic. Practically, every person able to move about within the road network is a pedestrian, with the length and aim of the trip taken on foot being the key. The distance to be covered by a traffic participant is the primary criterion which influences the choice of the type of trip [1]. Studies on transport behaviour carried out in Poland [2] make it possible to conclude that pedestrian trips constitute about 20% of the total trips in cities. In comparison, this share is ca. 35% in Barcelona and 31% in London [3].

Accidents involving pedestrians are very often the result of various factors related to the infrastructure and behaviour of pedestrians and drivers [4], and to the road infrastructure [5–7]. The factors which involve the behaviour of road infrastructure users include vehicle speeds and the degree to which they are exceeded, pedestrian speed, crossing the road illegally and how drivers behave towards pedestrians (giving way at pedestrian crossings) [8–10]. These factors will vary depending on traffic and pedestrian volumes and the pedestrian crossing location (built-up area, non-built-up area, road class and cross-section, intersections and midblock) [11–14]. Road infrastructure-related factors that have an effect on pedestrian safety include the cross-section [15] but also the width and length of pedestrian crossing, how far it is from an intersection, road section geometry (vertical and horizontal alignment), type and condition of road surface, presence of refuge

**Citation:** Budzynski, M.; Gobis, A.; Guminska, L.; Jelinski, L.; Kiec, M.; Tomczuk, P. Assessment of the Influence of Road Infrastructure Parameters on the Behaviour of Drivers and Pedestrians in Pedestrian Crossing Areas. *Energies* **2021**, *14*, 3559. https://doi.org/10.3390/ en14123559

Academic Editor: Mario Marchesoni

Received: 18 May 2021 Accepted: 11 June 2021 Published: 15 June 2021

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islands and their geometric parameters, type of vertical and horizontal marking and its condition, signalised and not signalised crossing [16–19], distance to designated and illegal parking, presence of public transport stops, adequacy of drainage, facilities for the blind and visually impaired, pedestrian ramps, condition of pavements and lighting [20–23] and distances between pedestrian crossings [24]. Research on pedestrian crossings focuses on the interaction of drivers and pedestrians [5,25,26] using conflict analysis [27,28].

Pedestrian safety is among the most important challenges in implementing measures to improve road safety [29,30]. More than 1/5 of all fatalities in road accidents worldwide are pedestrians [31]. In several countries, these values are even higher and exceed 1/3 [32,33].

In 2008, in an effort to raise road safety levels across the EU to those of the best performing countries, the European Commission wrote and implemented Directive 2008/96/EC on road infrastructure safety management [34]. The European Commission's intention was to implement adequate tools to improve the safety of road infrastructure across the trans-European road network. Several years into the process, it was clear that the road safety actions were ineffective [35]. In 2019, Directive 2019/1936 of the European Parliament and of the Council was developed amending Directive 2008/96/EC on road infrastructure safety management [36], which extends its remit to roads co-financed from EU funds. In countries such as Poland, where pedestrians represent about 30% of all road deaths, implementing control measures to protect vulnerable road users should be of particular importance. These include road safety inspections (RSI) [37] and road safety audits (RSA). Through these measures, it is possible to significantly reduce the number of people killed or seriously injured in road accidents, including pedestrians [38]. Such work should be supported by scientific research on road user behaviour, which is a main subject in this paper. Pedestrian safety in Poland is at a very low level compared to the best European countries in this regard [39]. Every third fatality in a traffic accident in Poland is a pedestrian. In the years 2009–2018, approximately 94.5 thousand pedestrian accidents were registered in Poland, in which approximately 89.0 thousand pedestrians were injured, and 11.0 thousand pedestrians were killed (Figure 1). It should be emphasized that at that time, the number of pedestrian accidents and their victims decreased by over 40%. However, this is still too high a number. About 10% of all deaths in accidents in Poland were registered at pedestrian crossings (based on SEWIK, a police database).

**Figure 1.** Pedestrian accident and victims in Poland in the years 2009–2018 (based on police's SEWIK data).

Ensuring pedestrian safety in the area of pedestrian crossings should be a priority for actions taken by road authorities. For this purpose, it is necessary to conduct systematic studies of pedestrian and driver behaviour. The lack of clear rules on when to give way to pedestrians gives rise to drivers' dangerous behaviour towards pedestrians, for example, driving the wrong way through pedestrian crossings and, on the other hand, dangerous behaviour of pedestrians themselves in traffic—careless running onto the roadway, crossing the road where it is illegal, etc. [40–42]. This problem also includes the lack of appropriate infrastructure for pedestrians moving across the roadway (refuge islands or appropriate marking) and along the roadway (sidewalks)—mainly on the outskirts of cities, segments of roads through built-up areas and segments of roads in non-built-up areas where pedestrian traffic may occur with significant intensity. Additionally, several existing pedestrian facilities do not meet traffic or safety standards (for example, their technical condition, location of pedestrian crossings in terms of visibility, public transport stops and gaps in footpaths). Dependencies between pedestrians and vehicles require relevant studies to ensure the safe movement of pedestrians.

*Polish experience*. Research in Poland analyses pedestrian behaviour by analysing digital footage from cameras, an approach also used in the MOBIS project. The objective of the project was to develop and test a method for assessing pedestrian crossing safety using an automatic analysis of video footage. The assessment was designed to identify conflicting movements of vehicles and pedestrians. The project helped us to test and optimise the method at different types of pedestrian crossings in urban areas: on single carriageways with and without a refuge island, dual carriageways and at traffic lights [43]. Studies of Poland's pedestrian crossings also analyse night-time luminance depending on road lighting [44,45]. A safety assessment of non-signalised pedestrian crossings showed that many drivers exceed the applicable speed limits [46]. Other studies indicate that there is a high risk to pedestrians on sections of transit roads in small towns [47] and cities [48].

*International experience.* A study was conducted in Australia designed primarily to test road user knowledge of regulations determining right-of-way in different situations [49]. Another research method implemented in Australia analysed child behaviour on major and local roads. The study paid special attention to where children stop, where they look around, how they analyse vehicle movement and how they cross the road [50]. In France, study was focused on analysing the behaviour and interrelations between pedestrians and drivers. The analysis of the results showed that when a pedestrian looks at an oncoming vehicle, the car is more than 10% more likely to stop [51].

Surveys conducted in the United Kingdom identified three main hazards to pedestrian safety: dual carriageway crossing, red light entry for drivers and reduced visibility by parked vehicles [52]. In Spain, cameras were deployed for automatic pedestrian detection at pedestrian crossings. In addition, a manual check was conducted of the gender, age, size of group or pedestrian baggage [53]. In Germany, road traffic behaviour was studied at signalised intersections [54]. Research in the Netherlands proved that pedestrians mostly struggle with excessive vehicle speeds, especially as regards people aged >65 [55]. A study in Sweden recorded road user behaviour using cameras [56,57]. The results of research in Belgium show that approximately 21% of the pedestrians violate traffic lights [58]. Research conducted in Finland concerned the speed of drivers and pedestrians, road traffic and the behaviour of road users in the area of pedestrian crossings [59]. Studies conducted in urban areas in Israel analysed the effects of pedestrian distraction at pedestrian crossings on pedestrian safety [60]. In Malaysia, driver behaviour was assessed at pedestrian crossings (accelerating and slowing) and pedestrian time lost [61]. A study in Estonia assessed the share of drivers running red lights, vehicle speed and estimated pedestrian and vehicle time lost [62]. Work conducted in China [63–65] studied pedestrian and driver behaviour at signalised pedestrian crossings. The country also conducted other research to measure vehicle speed and the distance between a stopped vehicle and a pedestrian [66]. Research [67,68] has shown that the greater the number of lanes in one direction, the greater the number of conflicts between drivers and pedestrians. Research in India [69,70] has indicated the problems that pedestrians have with the assessment of the possibility of crossing the road at crossings outside intersections. Research conducted in Slovakia concerned the use of mobile devices and headphones on pedestrian crossings [71].

The field research was also supported by simulation studies, during which the impact of different scenarios on the behaviour of drivers and pedestrians in the area of pedestrian crossings outside intersections was analysed [72–74].

Review of Polish and international research shows that field work must be conducted to observe pedestrian and driver behaviour at pedestrian crossings (as demonstrated further in the article). Real pedestrian crossing situations should be studied analysing crossing location, equipment, pedestrian traffic volume and pedestrian characteristics. In the case of drivers, observation is required to understand driver reaction on approaches to pedestrian crossings in relation to pedestrian behaviour. As a result, it will be possible to assess the effectiveness of existing solutions and improve pedestrian safety where it is most at risk, i.e., at pedestrian crossings [75]. In the majority of countries which study pedestrian behaviour and pedestrian–driver relations, this is not carried out systematically. Instead, the work analyses selected aspects only. It is critical for Poland to carry out such work due to the high levels of risk to pedestrians.

Taking into account the literature review, parameters were verified and selected, which helped to build a database that is the basis for analysing the behaviour of pedestrians and drivers and the pedestrian–driver relationship in pedestrian crossing areas:

