*3.1. The Layer of Writings*

During sacrificial rituals, important performances involved delivering sincere invocations to invoke the spirits. According to the *Ritual of Zhou*, the grand supplicant (*taizhu* ཚ⾍) was responsible for composing and reciting six kinds of invocation (*liuzhu* ޝ (虫and six kinds of invocation (*liuqi* ޝ (缶to serve the gods and spirits, the former for invoking blessings, and the latter for warding off calamities (Zheng and Jia 2000b, 25.774a-780a). In the *Classic of Ritual*, we see numerous records of concrete invocations, prayers, laments, prognostications, and so forth (Zheng and Jia 2000a, 43.949b–966a, 47.1039b, 48.1058b). Because these ritual classics are now generally regarded as having been completed during the period of the Warring States to the early Han, these excessively neat, detailed records may contain later modifications. We do, however, have numerous actual writings of invocation and prayer in oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, transmitted texts, and excavated manuscripts. These include a large number of the most refined literary works, such as the many poems included in the *Classic of Poetry* and the Chu songs (Chuci ᾊ䗝).

Here I use as an example the writing of the *Jade Plaque of Qin Yin Praying for Healing Illness* 〖倠⯵⦹⡸, a text excavated at Mount Hua 㨟ኡ (in present day Shaanxi). Qin Yin was probably King Huiwen of Qin (r. 325–311 BCE), who prayed to the spirits of Mount Hua, the Great One, and the Great General for healing his serious illness (Li 2000, pp. 41–45; Lian 2001, pp. 49–57; Zhou 2001, pp. 217–32). This text is a refined, rhymed literary work, which mixes tetrasyllabic lines, the dominant poetic form in the pre-Han period, with lines of varied syllabics. It is virtually a verse of the *fu* 䌖 genre that originated in the late Warring States and flourished in the Han dynasty. The text, with about 300 characters, can be divided into four sections. The first expresses the king's sad feelings about his illness:

In the tenth month, the beginning of winter,

The retrograde atmosphere is fading and bleak.

My body is suffering from a serious illness, Which makes me very sad and worried. I toss and turn, restlessly and repeatedly, But my illness shows no sign of recovery. People don't know why, and I also don't know why —it is never over. I am desperate and find no way out,

Sighing deeply with my sorrows.

ᆏߜॱᴸ, ≓ᮇ. ։䓛䚝⯵, ⡢ᡁᡊឲ. ♬♬৽ڤ,❑ 䯃❑Ᵽ. 㹶Ӫᕇ⸕, ։ Ӗᕇ⸕, 㘼䶑ᴹᇊՁ. ੮マ㘼❑ླྀѻօ, ≨శឲᜱ. (Li 2006b, pp. 343–61)

This section comprises mainly tetrasyllabic lines, which are neatly rhymed with the *you* ᒭ rhyme group, just like a typical poem in the *Classic of Poetry*. It starts by describing a fading scene of early winter, which effectively leads to the expression of the king's sorrowful feelings about his serious illness. The next section narrates how the king intends to pray to all the heavenly gods, territorial deities, and ancestral spirits, but does not know the ways to do so because the fall of the Zhou court had caused the loss of the ritual codes. In the third section, the king professes to the gods that he has never committed any crimes. Finally, the king prays to the gods and spirits of Mount Hua, the Great One, and the Great General, promising a long list of offerings if those spirits will help him recover from his illness. The text thus sincerely describes and expresses the king's painful illness, sorrowful feelings, and bitter supplication to the gods/spirits.

The purpose of the sincerity presented in supplicatory writings was to gain *xin* ؑ (trustworthiness, faithfulness) from the gods and spirits. For example, the *Zuozhuan* ᐖۣ (Zuo's Commentary) records:

The so-called Dao is to be loyal to the people and trustworthy to the gods. The ruler thinks about benefiting the people—this is loyalty; the supplicant and scribe present correct writings to the gods—this is trustworthiness ᡰ䄲 䚃, ᘐҾ≁㘼ؑҾ⾎ҏ. кᙍ࡙≁, ᘐҏ; ⾍ਢ↓䗝, ؑҏ. (Huan 6, 706 BCE)

The supplicant and scribe present trustworthy writings to the spirits and gods without words of qualm. ަ⾍ਢ䲣ؑҾ公⾎, ❑䗝. (Xiang 27; 546 BCE)

Here, *xin* (trustworthiness) in both records clearly refers to presenting sincere supplicatory writings to attain the trust of the gods and spirits. Although the term *ci* 䗝 refers to both words and writings in classical Chinese, supplicatory "ci" was usually written down. As the *Mozi* tells us, services to the gods and spirits were so significant that they must be written on bamboo and silk or engraved on bronzeware and stone, so as to be transmitted to later generations. ᭵ᴨѻ㉑ᑋ ... ⩒ѻⴔⳲ, 䨔ѻ 䠁⸣ԕ䟽ѻ (Sun 2001, pp. 237–38).

In contrast, if the invocation were not sincere, the gods and spirits not only would not bestow any blessings but would also exercise a bad influence. For example, Duke Xian of Jin's ᱻ⦫ޜ heir Shensheng ⭣⭏ committed suicide under the slanders of Concubine Li; later his brother Duke Hui of Jin ᱻᜐޜ reburied him with the correct ritual, but his body emitted a foul smell. The people of Jin then said, "The correct ritual was not accepted by the deceased because the supplication (*xin*) was not sincere" 䋎⡢н㚭, ؑ⡢н䃐 (Lai 2000, pp. 438–41). Here, *xin* is used directly to refer to the supplicatory writing recited by the supplicant during the funeral ritual.

The character *xin* ؑ comprises the two graphs *ren* Ӫ (human) and *yan* 䀰 (word), meaning that a human's words are trustworthy and faithful. *Xin*'s early implication might have been the use of words to gain the trust of the gods and spirits, as seen in the above citation that directly uses *xin* to refer to supplication. Xu Shen explained *xin* as *cheng*2 and *cheng*2 as *xin* (Xu 1963, p. 52a–b); thus, the two are virtually synonyms. With the addition of the constituent *yan* (word), *cheng*2 also referred to using sincere words/writings to gain the trust of the gods and spirits in order to supplicate them to

descend and enjoy the offerings. As a result, *cheng*2 and *xin* were often used together or else formed the compound *chengxin* 䃐ؑ to indicate sincere and trustworthy supplicatory words and writings. For example, the *Records of Ritual* states: "Therefore, when the virtuous person holds sacrificial rituals, he presents his sincere-trustworthy [supplicatory writings]" ᱟ᭵䌒㘵ѻ⾝ҏ, 㠤ަ䃐ؑ (Zheng and Kong 2000, 49. 1571a-1573b).
