4.2.3. Class Analysis of the Patrons

Han grand rhapsodies or dafu were generally popular among members of the upper class and were liked and systematically supported by the supreme rulers, whereas Han pictorial stones were mainly popular among commoners and their use for tomb decoration was systematically restricted by the ruling class. Therefore, Han grand rhapsodies were a creative art of the upper class, and Han pictorial stones were that of commoners.

### *4.3. The Significance of the Class Analysis of Han Rhapsodies and Han Pictorial Stones*

The Han dynasty was the first dynasty in China to have perfected centralized power. An outstanding feature of centralized power is the emphasis on hierarchy. Due to the implementation, maintenance, and operation of the hierarchy, artistic creation was bound to be greatly influenced. When we analyze the texts and images related to the cult of the Queen Mother, it is essential to consider the influence of class and systematic factors.

Han dafu was an art form of the aristocracy. Because of the support of the supreme ruler, fu writers had grea<sup>t</sup> zeal for creation and a good environment. Han dafu works are lengthy and contain very detailed descriptions of various social phenomena within the Han Empire. That being said, there is a lack of portrayal of the image of the Queen Mother, although there are many descriptions of gods and deities. "Rhapsody on King Gong of Lu's Palace of Numinous Light" (Lulingguang dian fu 魯 靈 光 殿 賦), for example, offers a vivid account of various deities and spirits, such as Fuxi 伏 羲 and Nüwa 女 媧, and so on (Fei et al. 1993, pp. 527–30). The reason behind the lack of depictions of the

Queen Mother is complicated. The scholar-official class had a relatively indifferent attitude towards belief in the Queen Mother. Suzanne Cahill pays attention to this particular literary occurrence and tries to put it into its historical context. She believes that the worship of Queen Mother could not enter the mainstream social stratum, probably because "[t]he accounts in the Book of Han [Hanshu] suggests that historians interpreted her cult as an abnormal occurrence that corresponded to heavenly patterns and as an ominous portent for the royal house" (Cahill 1993, p. 21).

Contrary to this, images of the Queen Mother were widespread amongs<sup>t</sup> the Han stone reliefs of the commoner class. They came not only in huge numbers, but also in various types, including portrait and profiles, base, and no base, and various depictions of the celestial and real world. These phenomena all illustrate the enthusiasm of the common people about the cult of the Queen Mother.

### *4.4. Special Comparison between Han Fu and Other Literary Works*

Why do we select from among the literary genres of the Han dynasty the rhapsody for a discussion here about the cult of the Queen Mother? The reason is that the Han rhapsody is the most representative and influential genre of literature that enjoys an unrivalled status in Han dynasty literature.

Recorded in the "Epitomes of Poetry and Rhapsody" (shifu lue 詩 賦 略) of the History of the Han Dynasty are seventy-four fu writers in the Western Han dynasty who produced a total of 941 pieces of work (Hanshu 30. 1747–1753), but only about 100 of them have survived, and many of them are incomplete. Can these surviving works explain the attitude of the Han literati towards the Queen? To this question, our answer is affirmative.

In his study of the evolution of the Xiwangmu narrative in early China, Du Wenping provides statistics on the occurrence of the Queen Mother in the literature of the Han dynasty. Below is a table (Table 5) drawn on the basis of the research materials provided by Wenping Du (2014, pp. 162–73).


**Table 5.** Quantitative statistics on the occurrence of Xiwangmu narrative in the literary works of the Han dynasty.

The statistics only cover the stories of the Queen Mother composed by the author of the literary work from the Han dynasty with those quoted from other sources excluded. The table suggests that Han literati, similar to other groups of the upper class, did not seem to show much enthusiasm for the Queen Mother, either. In most cases, the Queen Mother appears only once. The highest frequency of appearance occurs in the History of the Han Dynasty, which mentions the goddess three times. As with the aforementioned four Han grand rhapsodies, the description of the Queen Mother in these works is in general short and simple.
