**3. Results**


According to the analysis results, it can be found that the adjacent index of Paleolithic sites was quite different from that of Neolithic sites and Xia–Shang–Zhou sites, and the Z value was quite different, with significant changes. The adjacent index of Neolithic sites was close to that of Xia–Shang–Zhou sites, and the difference of Z value was small. From the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age, the spatial distribution patterns of the sites were all spatial aggregation (the adjacent index was less than 1), and the aggregation degree in the Paleolithic Age was low, and it continued to increase in the Neolithic Age. The aggregation degree in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties was close to that in the Neolithic Age, showing an obvious inheritance relationship of aggregation degree (Table 1). **Period Average Observation Distance/m Theoretical Average Distance/m Adjacent Index** *R* **Distribution Pattern** *Z* **Value**  Paleolithic Age 2423.4 7704.0 0.316 Spatial aggregation −28.7

showing an obvious inheritance relationship of aggregation degree (Table 1).

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*3.1. Evolution of Spatial and Temporal Distribution Characteristics* 

According to the analysis results, it can be found that the adjacent index of Paleolithic sites was quite different from that of Neolithic sites and Xia–Shang–Zhou sites, and the Z value was quite different, with significant changes. The adjacent index of Neolithic sites was close to that of Xia–Shang–Zhou sites, and the difference of Z value was small. From the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age, the spatial distribution patterns of the sites were all spatial aggregation (the adjacent index was less than 1), and the aggregation degree in the Paleolithic Age was low, and it continued to increase in the Neolithic Age. The aggregation degree in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties was close to that in the Neolithic Age,

3.1.1. Analysis Results of Adjacent Index

**Table 1.** Summary of elements.

**3. Results** 


#### 3.1.2. Analysis Results of Kernel Density The results show that there are two high-density groups of Paleolithic sites which are located in the Wangwu Mountain area and the Songshan area, respectively. By the Neo-

**Table 1.** Summary of elements.

The results show that there are two high-density groups of Paleolithic sites which are located in the Wangwu Mountain area and the Songshan area, respectively. By the Neolithic Age, the distribution density of the sites increase as a whole, and change from single cluster distribution in the Paleolithic Age to the coexistence of clusters and highdensity zones, especially along the Yiluo River, Fenhe River, and Weihe River, forming a typical high-density zone of the sites. The sites from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties are further developed and integrated on the basis of the Neolithic Age, and the distribution characteristics of groups and bands become more obvious, and the number of sites groups further increases (Figure 2). lithic Age, the distribution density of the sites increase as a whole, and change from single cluster distribution in the Paleolithic Age to the coexistence of clusters and high-density zones, especially along the Yiluo River, Fenhe River, and Weihe River, forming a typical high-density zone of the sites. The sites from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties are further developed and integrated on the basis of the Neolithic Age, and the distribution characteristics of groups and bands become more obvious, and the number of sites groups further increases (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Kernel density map of sites in the Sanhe region. Neolithic Age 142,289 93,437 41,765 109.92 **Figure 2.** Kernel density map of sites in the Sanhe region.

3.1.3. Standard Deviation Ellipse Analysis Results

of site distribution involved.

**Figure 3.** Direction of site distribution.

**Period** *X***-Axis Length** 

**Table 2.** Standard deviation ellipse parameters of sites by period.

*Y***-Axis Length (m)** 

Paleolithic Age 126,992 56,734 22,632 111.63

**Elliptical Area** 

**(km2) Rotation Angle (°)** 

**(m)** 

(Table 2).

ences in the distribution of sites in each period in order to discover the evolution pattern of sites' direction over time. The larger the ratio of the long and short axes of the ellipse, the more obvious the directionality of the ellipse, and the size of the area of the ellipse can reveal the range of site distribution; the larger the area of the ellipse, the wider the range

The results show that the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasty sites in the Sanhe region all show a southeast–northwest distribution trend, and the Paleolithic sites have the smallest distribution range and more obvious directionality (Figure 3). The number of sites in the Neolithic Age and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties are more than others, their distribution range is wider, and their directionality is inconspicuous

#### 3.1.3. Standard Deviation Ellipse Analysis Results of sites' direction over time. The larger the ratio of the long and short axes of the ellipse,

The standard deviation ellipse is used to analyze the main directional characteristics of the distribution of early sites in the Sanhe region during the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, respectively, and to compare the similarities and differences in the distribution of sites in each period in order to discover the evolution pattern of sites' direction over time. The larger the ratio of the long and short axes of the ellipse, the more obvious the directionality of the ellipse, and the size of the area of the ellipse can reveal the range of site distribution; the larger the area of the ellipse, the wider the range of site distribution involved. the more obvious the directionality of the ellipse, and the size of the area of the ellipse can reveal the range of site distribution; the larger the area of the ellipse, the wider the range of site distribution involved. The results show that the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasty sites in the Sanhe region all show a southeast–northwest distribution trend, and the Paleo-

The standard deviation ellipse is used to analyze the main directional characteristics

of the distribution of early sites in the Sanhe region during the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, respectively, and to compare the similarities and differences in the distribution of sites in each period in order to discover the evolution pattern

**Figure 2.** Kernel density map of sites in the Sanhe region.

3.1.3. Standard Deviation Ellipse Analysis Results

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The results show that the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasty sites in the Sanhe region all show a southeast–northwest distribution trend, and the Paleolithic sites have the smallest distribution range and more obvious directionality (Figure 3). The number of sites in the Neolithic Age and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties are more than others, their distribution range is wider, and their directionality is inconspicuous (Table 2). lithic sites have the smallest distribution range and more obvious directionality (Figure 3). The number of sites in the Neolithic Age and Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties are more than others, their distribution range is wider, and their directionality is inconspicuous (Table 2).

**Figure 3.** Direction of site distribution. **Figure 3.** Direction of site distribution.

**Table 2.** Standard deviation ellipse parameters of sites by period.


#### Neolithic Age 142,289 93,437 41,765 109.92 *3.2. Coupling Analysis of Man-Land Relationship*

Through the analysis of the existing research in this field [26], in order to make the research results more accurate and scientific, the relatively stable geographical features such as landform, topographic relief, river, slope, and aspect were selected. In this section, the research also follows this principle. At the same time, such factors as climate, which have changed greatly since ancient times, were discarded [27].

#### 3.2.1. Elevation Factor have changed greatly since ancient times, were discarded [27].

Xia, Shang and

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*3.2. Coupling Analysis of Man-Land Relationship* 

Zhou Dynasties 154,751 86,139 41,874 105.86

Through the analysis of the existing research in this field [26], in order to make the research results more accurate and scientific, the relatively stable geographical features such as landform, topographic relief, river, slope, and aspect were selected. In this section, the research also follows this principle. At the same time, such factors as climate, which

The results showed that the elevation had a certain influence on the site selection of early settlements. From the Paleolithic to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, with the elevation increasing, the number of sites gradually increased, and when it reached the most suitable height for survival, the number of sites began to decrease gradually, indicating that when the elevation exceeded the most suitable height in this area, the site selection of early settlements would be restricted by the higher elevation (Figure 4). According to the relationship between the site and the elevation, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 5). 3.2.1. Elevation Factor The results showed that the elevation had a certain influence on the site selection of early settlements. From the Paleolithic to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, with the elevation increasing, the number of sites gradually increased, and when it reached the most suitable height for survival, the number of sites began to decrease gradually, indicating that when the elevation exceeded the most suitable height in this area, the site selection of early settlements would be restricted by the higher elevation (Figure 4). According to the relationship between the site and the elevation, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 5).

**Figure 4.** Elevation factor. **Figure 4.** Elevation factor.

3.2.2. Slope Factor

(Figure 7).

The results showed that slope significantly affected the distribution of early cultural

for terrain slope in the site selection of settlements. From the Paleolithic Age to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the dependence of early human beings on gentle-slope terrain was increasing, so the proportion of sites in gentle-slope areas was gradually increasing (Figure 6). According to the relationship between the site and the slope, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good

**Figure 5.** Percentage change curves of sites with different elevation levels. **Figure 5.** Percentage change curves of sites with different elevation levels.

#### 3.2.2. Slope Factor

The results showed that slope significantly affected the distribution of early cultural sites in the Sanhe region, and settlement in different periods had different requirements for terrain slope in the site selection of settlements. From the Paleolithic Age to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the dependence of early human beings on gentle-slope terrain was increasing, so the proportion of sites in gentle-slope areas was gradually increasing (Figure 6). According to the relationship between the site and the slope, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 7). *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17 *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

**Figure 6.** Slope factor. **Figure 6.** Slope factor. **Figure 6.** Slope factor.

3.2.3. Aspect Factor

3.2.3. Aspect Factor

**Figure 7.** Percentage change curves of sites with different slope levels. **Figure 7.** Percentage change curves of sites with different slope levels.

The results showed that (1) the vast majority of sites were distributed in flat areas or facing the sunshine, with most sites distributed in southeast, southwest, and south areas;

The results showed that (1) the vast majority of sites were distributed in flat areas or

was the largest, that of Neolithic sites distributed in the, southwest was the largest, and

**Figure 7.** Percentage change curves of sites with different slope levels.

#### 3.2.3. Aspect Factor were located [28] (Figures 8 and 9).

The results showed that (1) the vast majority of sites were distributed in flat areas or facing the sunshine, with most sites distributed in southeast, southwest, and south areas; (2) the proportion of Paleolithic sites distributed in the southeast, south, and southwest was the largest, that of Neolithic sites distributed in the, southwest was the largest, and that of Xia–Shang–Zhou sites distributed in flat areas was the largest; (3) there were also sites in some aspects that were not suitable for human habitation, and the reasons may be related to the river system and the restriction of land resources in the area where they were located [28] (Figures 8 and 9). *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17 that of Xia–Shang–Zhou sites distributed in flat areas was the largest; (3) there were also sites in some aspects that were not suitable for human habitation, and the reasons may be related to the river system and the restriction of land resources in the area where they were located [28] (Figures 8 and 9).

that of Xia–Shang–Zhou sites distributed in flat areas was the largest; (3) there were also sites in some aspects that were not suitable for human habitation, and the reasons may be related to the river system and the restriction of land resources in the area where they

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**Figure 8.** Aspect factor. **Figure 8.** Aspect factor. **Figure 8.** Aspect factor.

graphic relief. With the progress of productivity and the gradual development of early

of early cultural sites in the Sanhe region, and different periods had different requirements for topographic relief in the site selection of settlements. From the Paleolithic Age to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the site selection of early human settlements gradually developed from the original area with high topographic relief to the area with low topographic relief. With the progress of productivity and the gradual development of early

Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the site selection of early human settlements gradually developed from the original area with high topographic relief to the area with low topo-**Figure 9.** Percentage change radar chart of sites in different aspects. **Figure 9.** Percentage change radar chart of sites in different aspects.

3.2.4. Topographic Relief Factor

## 3.2.4. Topographic Relief Factor

The results showed that the topographic relief significantly affected the distribution of early cultural sites in the Sanhe region, and different periods had different requirements for topographic relief in the site selection of settlements. From the Paleolithic Age to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the site selection of early human settlements gradually developed from the original area with high topographic relief to the area with low topographic relief. With the progress of productivity and the gradual development of early civilization, the dependence of early human beings on low topographic relief was increasing, and low topographic relief was more conducive to the development of primitive agricultural production and early civilization (Figure 10). According to the relationship between the site and the topographic relief, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good. (Figure 11). *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17 civilization, the dependence of early human beings on low topographic relief was increasing, and low topographic relief was more conducive to the development of primitive agricultural production and early civilization (Figure 10). According to the relationship between the site and the topographic relief, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good. (Figure 11). *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17 civilization, the dependence of early human beings on low topographic relief was increasing, and low topographic relief was more conducive to the development of primitive agricultural production and early civilization (Figure 10). According to the relationship between the site and the topographic relief, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coeffi-

cient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good. (Figure 11).

**Figure 10.** Topographic relief factor. **Figure 10.** Topographic relief factor. **Figure 10.** Topographic relief factor.

**Figure 11.** Percentage change curves of sites with different topographic relief levels. **Figure 11.** Percentage change curves of sites with different topographic relief levels. **Figure 11.** Percentage change curves of sites with different topographic relief levels.

3.2.5. Hydrological Factor

#### 3.2.5. Hydrological Factor 3.2.5. Hydrological Factor and the river buffer, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function

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The results showed that with the increase of the distance from the river, the number of sites in each period showed a decreasing trend. The reason is that in early human society, water resources for production and living mostly depended on rivers, so "living by water" was the most typical feature of settlement for site selection in early human society. At the same time, the river system also became an important influencing factor of settlement site selection in early human society. According to the relationship between the site and the river buffer, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 12). The results showed that with the increase of the distance from the river, the number of sites in each period showed a decreasing trend. The reason is that in early human society, water resources for production and living mostly depended on rivers, so "living by water" was the most typical feature of settlement for site selection in early human society. At the same time, the river system also became an important influencing factor of settlement site selection in early human society. According to the relationship between the site and the river buffer, a multiple regression model was established. The regression function was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 12). was shown in the figure. It can be seen that the correlation coefficient is very high, indicating that the fitting effect is good (Figure 12).

The results showed that with the increase of the distance from the river, the number

of sites in each period showed a decreasing trend. The reason is that in early human society, water resources for production and living mostly depended on rivers, so "living by

ment site selection in early human society. According to the relationship between the site

**Figure 12.** Percentage change curve of sites in different river buffer zones. **Figure 12.** Percentage change curve of sites in different river buffer zones. 3.2.6. Geodiversity Factor

#### 3.2.6. Geodiversity Factor 3.2.6. Geodiversity Factor After superimposing the geodiversity kernel density map with cultural sites, it can

After superimposing the geodiversity kernel density map with cultural sites, it can be found that Paleolithic sites are mostly distributed in areas with high geodiversity kernel density, and Neolithic sites begin to spread to areas with low density, while Xia, Shang, and Zhou sites are further developed on the basis of Neolithic sites, and they have certain similarities (Figures 13 and 14). After superimposing the geodiversity kernel density map with cultural sites, it can be found that Paleolithic sites are mostly distributed in areas with high geodiversity kernel density, and Neolithic sites begin to spread to areas with low density, while Xia, Shang, and Zhou sites are further developed on the basis of Neolithic sites, and they have certain similarities (Figures 13 and 14). be found that Paleolithic sites are mostly distributed in areas with high geodiversity kernel density, and Neolithic sites begin to spread to areas with low density, while Xia, Shang, and Zhou sites are further developed on the basis of Neolithic sites, and they have certain similarities (Figures 13 and 14).

**Figure 13.** Geodiversity assessment. **Figure 13.** Geodiversity assessment.

**Figure 14.** Overlay map of sites and geodiversity kernel density. **Figure 14.** Overlay map of sites and geodiversity kernel density.
