**1. Introduction**

The Sasanian dynasty, which ruled over the entire Iranian Plateau and beyond from 220 to 651 CE, was the last pre-Islamic empire of Iran (for the history of the Sasanian Empire, see [1,2]). Ardashir I (224–41 CE), the founder of the dynasty, named the kingdom after his grandfather Sasan, supposedly a priest of the goddess Anahid in the city of Istakhr, the capital of the province of Persis/Fars [3]. The dynasty thus claimed religious legitimacy and authority from its foundation via "[the connection of] an eponymous founder with an important sanctuary" [4] (p. 156). The Sasanians aimed to move the territories of the empire to that of the Achaemenids [4]. It was under Khosrow II (590–628 CE) that their empire reached its territorial zenith, thanks to a series of military campaigns that allowed the Sasanians to dominate the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt for over a decade in the early seventh century CE [5]. Hence, Khosrow II is the most important king of this golden era (498–622) of the Sasanian sovereignty.

Khosrow II took over the throne following a plot that deposed his father, Hormazd IV (579–90 CE). Soon after, however, the rebellious general Bahram Chobin forced the young Khosrow to flee to the Eastern Roman Empire, where he sought alliance and support [3] (pp. 191–199). Maurice, by then the Roman emperor, helped the young Khosrow to recapture the throne and defeat Bahram [4] (p. 160); [6] (pp. 236–240), [7] (p. 85); [8,9]. In order to consolidate power, Khosrow II managed to take control and prevent possible adversities, both inside and outside the borders of his political hegemony. As Khosrow wanted to clear any notoriety, he first eliminated those connected with the murder of his father. Later, when Maurice passed away, Khosrow started a series of campaigns in western territories, particularly in regions controlled by the Romans [4] (p. 161); [8,9]. Even though Khosrow's success in conquering Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and

 Motamedmanesh, M.; Royan, S. Khosrow II (590–628 CE). *Encyclopedia* **2022**, *2*, 937–951. https://doi.org/10.3390/ encyclopedia2020062

**Citation:**

Academic Editors: Mirko Vagnoni and Raffaele Barretta

Received: 28 February 2022 Accepted: 30 April 2022 Published: 10 May 2022

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**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Anatolia granted him a good reputation and acceptance at first, the continuity and cruelty of his ambitious campaigns caused increasing hostility with the powerful western neighbor [2] (p. 33); [10,11]. For example, historians have recorded vivid descriptions of the hostile acts by Khosrow II during the conquest of Jerusalem (614 CE) that triggered revenge campaigns against Sasanian temples [2] (p. 33); [12,13] (p. 592). Thus, "in a matter of years, Khosrow II went from a world conqueror, emulating the Achaemenid territorial integrity to a humiliated king who was unable to protect the sacred Zoroastrian fire-temples and his subjects [2] (p. 33)." Eventually, the nobility and priests removed Khosrow II in 628 CE, and subsequently, all the conquered regions were returned to the Romans.

The Sasanian royal image was not just created through sovereign acts or written sources but rather depended, to a grea<sup>t</sup> extent, on a well-developed iconographic language promoted by rock reliefs, coins, and other visual products of material culture [14–17]. In the absence or scarcity of written sources, pictorial documents maintain a treasury for the understanding of the most important aspects of the royal image under the Sasanian rule [18]. From an iconographic point of view, Khosrow II is of significant interest to scholars: the abundance of archaeological evidence from his time, combined with the contrasting characters of his sovereignty (e.g., victory/defeat, treason/loyalty, piety/impiety, etc.) provide scholars with an unparalleled, first-hand source of information that sheds light on an important ye<sup>t</sup> less-known period of the history of Iran. Considering the subjective nature of the portrayals and interpretations presented by Christian, Muslim, and Persian authors, Khosrow's personality has remained relatively unknown to us [19]. The pictorial language, conceived by the king himself, is the proper medium that can shed light on this matter. Drawing upon the established iconographic language of his time, as well as manipulating some aspects of the iconographic language of his predecessors, Khosrow II managed to present a powerful and influential image of his monarchy. This entry summarizes the unique features of Khosrow II's royal iconography, its function, and its possible audience. It, therefore, describes the iconographic and iconological characteristics of his royal image on rock reliefs and coins.

## **2. Taq-e-Bustan Rock Reliefs**

Generally speaking, the depiction of a royal image aims to allude to the authority of the ruling king. The direct reuse of conventional royal icons or the use of their modified versions, as well as employing innovative symbols, are the methods by which this goal has been achieved in the history of Persian monarchies. Close analysis of the transformation of royal images under the Sasanians, particularly through iconographic studies of cases that vary in size and complexity, helps outline the basics and overall thinking of Sasanian royal iconography, including that of Khosrow II.

According to Vanden Berghe, the author of a comprehensive catalog of the rock reliefs of ancient Iran, the Sasanian kings commissioned 39 rock reliefs [20] (p. 1090). Most of these engravings are devoid of any inscription and are located in significant locations to depict crucial political events, such as royal investiture or military victories [20] (p. 1091), as well as religious tendencies or royal festivals, such as games and hunts. In ancient Iran, the use of pictorial reliefs, coupled with informative inscriptions, was the traditional way of illustrating royal images, as well as depicting the kings' authority and legitimacy [21]. Therefore, by the time of the Sasanians, and Khosrow II, in particular, there existed an accepted iconographic language to propagate the political and religious ideas of the sovereign [22]. For instance, in rock reliefs, Sasanian artists depicted the kings only in four different positions: "standing, jousting, equestrained and enthroned" [23] (p. 308). Similarly, it is scholarly accepted today that almost every Sasanian king wore an individual crown and headgear [24]; (for various images of Sasanian crowns carved on rock reliefs, see [25]). The existence of these traditions allows scholars to study all Sasanian rock reliefs in a historical discourse that benefits from intertextual references.

Some of the most well-known rock reliefs of the Sasanian kings are located at Taq-e Bustan, near Kermanshah in western Iran. Here, the remaining reliefs include an investiture scene carved on a large cliff (depicting Ardashir II, 4th CE) and two ayvans (recesses) carved out of rock that contains different scenes of the royal life [24]. Though it is clear that one of the ayvans depicts Shapur II and Shapur III in the 4th CE, the identity of the Sasanian king who ordered the cutting of the greater ayvan (the so-called Great Grotto) and the king(s) whose figures were depicted there, are the subject of debate. Nevertheless, there is a scholarly consensus that the grea<sup>t</sup> ayvan is associated with Khosrow II (for more information, see [24,26–30]; [31] (p. 361); [32,33]).

In order to create a visual synchronization between the two ayvans, the fashion of the older, smaller ayvan was adapted to the greater counterpart. Scholars believe that the ayvan was a stone version of a type of palatial decoration that was common in stucco by then [24,33]. It, therefore, represents a change in the choice of material used for royal iconography [34]. The grea<sup>t</sup> ayvan is decorated on all sides and contains four different scenes of Khosrow's opulence and his glamorous court (Figure 1). The most celebrated rock relief of the Sasanian dynasty represents the king in four scenes: 1. an investiture scene on top of the back wall, illustrating the king standing between Ahura Mazda (the god of Zoroastrianism) and Anahita (the goddess of waters); 2. an equestrian image on the lower part of the same wall, depicting the king as a warrior on an armored horse; 3. a deer hunt scene on the right sidewall; 4. a boar hunt scene on the left sidewall. The entire complex has been regarded as "a celebration of well-known themes from Assyrian times" [24]. As discussed above, the foundation of Khosrow's ayvan at Taq-e Bustan dates back to the end of the 6th century CE at a time when the Sasanian kingdom was at its apogee of military achievements [5] (p. 6468). Thus, one may regard the Great Grotto as a victory monument that depicts Khosrow in the traditional roles of an Iranshahr king: as a legitimate king that receives the ring of power from deities, as a victorious warrior on horseback, and as the head of the team at royal hunts.

**Figure 1.** Taq-e Bustan, The Great Grotto. Source: authors.
