**1. Introduction**

Wind energy can be considered the most promising renewable source for generating electricity. Currently, about 5.30 percent of the world's electricity is generated by wind power; 1429.6 terawatt-hours (TWh), of the 27,004.7 TWh of electricity generated in 2019, came from wind energy [1].

Table 1 shows the amount of the electricity generated in 2019. Coal has the largest share, followed by natural gas and hydroelectric power.

Among the electricity generated from renewable energy sources, wind energy has the largest share. Table 2 shows the amount of electricity generated by renewable energy in 2019. Wind covered slightly more than 50 percent of electricity generated by renewable energy.

For electricity generated from renewable sources, hydropower is the mode most utilised in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region followed by geothermal energy and solid biofuels. Wind energy comprised a very small share of the renewable energy in the region [2]. Similarly, hydropower had most of the installed capacity of renewable energy in the ASEAN region, and the capacity of wind generation was quite low [2].

ASEAN member countries have massive wind energy potential, however [2]. Across the region, there are many suitable sites where the speed of wind is ideal for harnessing electricity. Harnessing energy from wind can help provide clean energy at affordable prices and reduce carbon emissions. Yet, the potential utilisation rates are not great due to the intermittency of electricity generated from wind, a relatively high levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), and high balance-of-system costs. Financing renewable energy projects, including wind farms, is also a key barrier to improve the utilisation rate of the renewable potential [3].

**Citation:** Chang, Y.; Phoumin, H. Harnessing Wind Energy Potential in ASEAN: Modelling and Policy Implications. *Sustainability* **2021**, *13*, 4279. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su13084279

Academic Editor: Tomonobu Senjyu

Received: 14 January 2021 Accepted: 24 March 2021 Published: 12 April 2021

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**Table 1.** Electricity Generation by Fuels for the World. (Terawatt-hours).

Note: 'Others' comprises sources not specified elsewhere. Source: [1].

**Table 2.** Renewable Electricity Generation in the World. (Terawatt-hours).


Note: Others include geothermal, biomass, and other sources of renewable energy not already itemised. Source: [1].

Among ASEAN countries, Viet Nam has good sources of wind energy. Its current share of wind energy in its power generation mix in 2020 was 1.7 percent, lower than that of solar energy (12.8 percent). The potential of offshore wind energy there is 261 gigawatts (GW) (fixed) and 214 GW (floating). Fourteen offshore wind projects have been proposed, which total 28 GW [4]. Indeed, Viet Nam aims to install 12 GW to 15 GW of onshore wind energy and 10 GW to 12 GW of offshore wind energy by 2030 [5].

Some obstacles exist for Viet Nam's wind energy projects, however, especially offshore in terms of environmental, social, and technical constraints. The offshore sites include protected areas or essential habitats that house vulnerable marine species, birds, and bats. In addition, those sites include oil-related activities, energy and communications infrastructure, and aquaculture. They are commercial fishing grounds, tourism spots, and have great historical and cultural significance. To be fully utilised, they also must also clear technical constraints such as marine traffic, air traffic, and military use [4].

Using a cross-border power trade model in ASEAN [6], this study aims to demonstrate that renewable energy resources, especially wind energy, can help ensure energy sustainability and climate change adaptation. As a basis of evaluation for how wind energy can contribute to meet the electricity demand in ASEAN, it constructs a counterfactual business-as-usual (BAU) scenario in which no wind energy is used. Following this, an actual BAU scenario is used, using 2018 as the starting year. Finally, this study adopts a REmap scenario against which the counterfactual and actual BAU scenarios are evaluated to see how much wind energy can help meet the demand for electricity and reduce carbon emissions. An International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) study is used to show how renewable energy can contribute to the energy landscape in the ASEAN region, using 2025 as a target year [7].

The second section reviews prospects of harnessing wind energy and factors dragging this objective. The third section presents principles of harnessing wind energy that constitute the basis of the simulation model, and the fourth section discusses the methodology of this study, its key assumptions, and data. The fifth section discusses results of this study, and the sixth section presents policy implications derived from the study.

#### **2. Harnessing Potential Wind Energy**

## *2.1. Prospects*

Huge potential exists for global wind power [8]. It can create more than 40 times the current worldwide consumption of electricity and more than 5 times the total global use of energy in all forms [9]. Wind energy can also bring non-energy benefits, as utilisation does not affect global temperature but does reduce carbon emissions and other air pollutants [10].

Some new technologies are currently exploring ways of harnessing energy from wind. A system that combines wind energy and hydropower in which the excess electricity generated from the wind farm is used to pump water from a lower tank to a higher level, which was installed in the island of Ikaria in Greece, appears to be feasible for low-cost electricity production [11]. Navarre, a Spanish region, has exhibited how even small towns can become a big player in wind energy [12]. Some have also made efforts to harness energy from high-altitude wind where the speed of wind is faster and, hence, renders higher potential [13]. Moreover, power generated from offshore wind can be delivered via synoptic-scale interconnection, which appears to solve the underutilisation of wind power due to the fluctuation of electricity generated [14].
