**5. Conclusions**

In our study, the application of wasted bread, raw or bioprocessed, resulted in higher escarole yield compared to the unfertilized control without any apparent phytotoxicity, thus confirming the possible re-utilization of such residual biomasses in agriculture as amendments. Although the effects could be transient, it is noteworthy that WB and bWB application resulted in a significantly higher soil OC and lower pHH2O value, a feature that can ameliorate the cultivation of alkaline soils (typical of the Mediterranean area) through beneficial effects on the bioavailability of several nutrients. Nevertheless, such biomasses are not suitable for application in acidic soils (in which the excessive bioavailability of micronutrients and the release of Al from mineral weathering could be favoured).

It was previously reported that LAB promote growth in different crops, even though the underlying mechanisms behind this bio-stimulation remain unclear. The use of wasted bread fermented with *Lactiplantibacillus plantarum* resolved the transplantation stress sooner and further investigation is needed to study the effects of such pre-treatment on the standardization of biomass characteristics and its shelf-life. Additionally, WB can be subjected to contamination during storage making the effects of such biomass on soil quality unpredictable.

Even though further studies are necessary to fully exploit the potential of wasted bread as an amendment, the feasibility of its large-scale production is undeniable. Companies currently producing fertilizers could easily handle the collection of the bread from bakeries and large retailer networks thanks to the abundant and widespread availability of this wasted food product. Although a proper technological transfer is needed, the bioprocess proposed is cost-effective and implementable on an industrial scale. The supply to farmers might follow the current sale and distribution channels. In return, bakeries would not have to assume the disposal costs for managing bread waste (also no longer edible or reusable for feed purposes). It can be assumed that the entity of amendment treatment (approximately corresponding to 250 q/ha) could effectively offer a solution to food waste managemen<sup>t</sup> and the economic and environmental sustainability of agricultural productions.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization and resources, C.G.R. and C.C. (Claudio Cocozza); formal analysis and data curation, C.C. (Claudio Cacace) and M.V.; writing—original draft preparation, C.C. (Claudio Cacace) and C.C. (Claudio Cocozza); writing—review and editing, M.V., C.G.R. and C.C. (Claudio Cocozza); supervision, G.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
