**8. Media Discourse**

The media discourse showed some similarities, but also some differences compared to the political discourse. In line with the political discourse, an oft-discussed topic in the various news articles was the situation in the various refugee camps located in different locations on the outskirts of the European Union.

### *8.1. Problematizing Refugees as Victims and/or a Potential Threat to Public Health*

Of the 84 articles that were included in our analysis of media discourse, 30 addressed matters around refugees.<sup>27</sup> The majority of these articles spoke of the various refugee camps at the external borders of the European Union, in particular the Canary Islands and Italy, but with an emphasis on the situation on the Greek islands of Samos and Lesbos. It was on the latter island where a destructive fire broke out in an encampment called 'Moria'. A close read of the articles reveal two main problematizations: on the one hand, as illustrated by the deplorable and inhumane circumstances under which asylum seekers have to 'live' in the encampments, the lack of 'care' for the health of asylum seekers amidst a global pandemic was problematized. As vividly described based on first hand experiences and observations by NGO workers, the amount of people packed together in the encampments without access to personal protective equipment and without the possibility of taking necessary hygienic measures is a 'humanitarian disaster' in the making.<sup>28</sup> Several articles indeed mention outbreaks of COVID-19 among asylum seekers.<sup>29</sup>

At the same time, there are articles that discuss how the global pandemic, given the inequalities between the Global North and the Global South in the distribution of medical equipment (and later on also the vaccine), might also spark more migration from the Global South to the Global North. What this shows is how the problematization of the asylum seeker, or more broadly the migrant, as the victim of inhumane circumstances is closely intertwined with a less explicit problematization of the asylum seeker as a potential risk to public health because of the very same circumstances that support the problematization of the asylum seeker as the victim. We also see the problematization of migration sparked by COVID-19 in general, as in "COVID-19 will lead to migration pressure on Europe's external borders due to the growing instability in vulnerable countries".<sup>30</sup> This begs the question to what extent calls for financial and medical support for the Global South are driven by true humanitarian motives or moreso by the self-interest of European member states in the Global North?<sup>31</sup> How, moreover, should this wish to provide help in the Global South be seen in light of observations by Doctors without Borders (MSF) who, based on the actions of several European member states located at the external borders of Europe, state that "European countries are now using COVID-19 to obstruct humanitarian aid".<sup>32</sup> The NGO is addressing actions by the Italian authorities as a result of which the boat *Sea Watch 4*, the search and rescue ship run by Sea-Watch and MSF, could not provide help to boat refugees drowning in the Meditarreanean.

A topic that seemed more prominent in media discourse than in political discourse is the extent to which different migrant communities in The Netherlands were hit harder by the COVID-19 crisis and what the cause of this could be.

### *8.2. Problematizing Migrant Communities in The Netherlands as Victims and/or a Potential Threat to Public Health*

A substantial number of articles (35) in our final selection of media discourse centered around the extent to which migrant communities in The Netherlands were, as in countries such as the US and the UK, disproportionately affected by the virus. In those articles, as in the articles discussing the situation of refugees and asylum seekers outside of the country, two narratives—or two problematizations—come to the fore: (a) the migrant as a victim of social and economic circumstances that will increase their risk of contracting COVID-19 or being seen as scapegoats, and (b) the potentially hazardous migrant who is more likely to spread the virus due to their religious and cultural practices or general lack of respect for and compliance with COVID-19 restrictions in The Netherlands. 33 The first narrative in many ways can be seen as a counter narrative to the more xenophobic and especially Islamophobic second narrative.

To start with the second narrative, migrant communities as potential spreaders of the virus, this narrative seemed to especially take flight after a head doctor from the Amsterdam University Medical Hospital Intensive Care Unit mentioned in an interview that there were many people with a migrant background hospitalized in the intensive care

units.<sup>34</sup> Although the doctor states that there are most likely many reasons contributing to this, his statement was used by anti-Islam politician Geert Wilders to send his earlier quoted tweet about Mohamed and Fatima taking up beds that should go to autochthonous Dutch people. Following Wilders' Tweet the Chairman of the Dutch catering industry association stated that research had shown that 'COVID-19 outbreaks among migrant communities' were more problematic than the risk of contracting COVID-19 in a restaurant or a cafe.<sup>35</sup> There are several articles that indeed seem to problematize some cultural and religious practices that are associated with different migrant communities in The Netherlands, with a clear emphasis on the Moroccan and Turkish communities but also with mentions of the Surinamese and Ghanese community. An important aspect of concern are large gatherings in the context of religious activities—a concern that is especially voiced around the month of Ramadan.<sup>36</sup> It has to be mentioned that religious gatherings *in general* have been problematized in the context of the pandemic, not just those of Muslims. Besides this, another cause for concern, outside of the context of religion, is gathering with friends, family and community members more generally,<sup>37</sup> as well as not being upfront about having COVID-19 out of a sense of shame of having contracted the disease.<sup>38</sup> These dynamics would, according to the articles, be more present within migrant communities than within native Dutch communities.

The problematization of migrant communities as spreaders of COVID-19 is not unique to The Netherlands. Several pieces illustrate not only the scapegoating mechanism that almost automatically seems to kick in when countries are faced with an intangible threat, but also illustrate how in various other countries different migrant communities have been targeted because of it.<sup>39</sup>

The second problematization that is clearly visible in the media discourse seems to be a direct response to the one that was just discussed. While taking the notion of migrant communities as reluctant to respect the COVID-19 restrictions as a point of departure, these articles paint a much more nuanced picture. The articles address the complex mix of social and economic factors as a result of which migrant communities are not in a privileged situation where they are able to work from home, to self-quarantine or socially distance themselves from family or community members who have tested positive, or to homeschool or home entertain their children. Combined with higher levels of obesity and diabetes in these communities, these circumstances make clear how the virus 'discriminates'. The virus, as is communicated clearly in these pieces, has led to a further deterioration of the already vulnerable living situation in which migrant communities often find themselves.<sup>40</sup> These articles also point out that migrant communities are not the only communities facing that reality; lower class, lower educated white Dutch communities are in the same boat. What is further questioned is the extent to which the governmen<sup>t</sup> has been clear and inclusive in its communication on COVID-19 and the measures around it. The call to use 'unusual suspects' and 'unusual leaders' in connecting with different communities—Imams, athletes, musicians, etc.—is echoed in these contributions as well.<sup>41</sup> Thus, all in all, this problematization can be seen more as a problematization of the current state of affairs in Dutch society, in which the socio-economic gap between various groups has grown tremendously over the past decades and in which polarization and fear of 'the other' seem to have become more and more common.
