*Article* **Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia**

**Doyeon Kim <sup>1</sup> , Ricky Avenzora <sup>2</sup> and Ju-hyoung Lee 3,\***


**Abstract:** This is international comparative research on the perception of local residents toward the natural environment in South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia. Through the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) investigation, perceptions of natural environmental conservation and utilization of 664 urban forest visitors were analyzed, and the relationship between recreational behavior, NEP scores, and demographic characteristics was investigated. The three countries, with different histories, cultures, and economic development, showed statistically significant differences in all items. In terms of the NEP response score, Taiwan showed the most positive results with an average of 4.08. Frequent visits by the elderly and family were common significant factors of high NEP score for all survey locations. In the confirmatory factor analysis of latent variables for NEP, 'limits to growth' were significant in South Korea while 'ecological crisis' was more significant in Taiwan and Indonesia. Forest experience frequency was a common factor affecting NEP, indicating that frequent forest visits during leisure time are a major factor in improving the ecological paradigm.

**Keywords:** NEP; nature experience; Asia; outdoor recreation; urban forest

### **1. Introduction**

A number of studies on human psychological and physical health recovery effects in forests have reported that experiences and recreational activities in natural environments have a positive influence on humans [1–6]. Exposure to and recreational experiences in natural environments are directly associated with people's perception in which the correlation between the perception of natural environment and recreational behaviors, such as forest experience frequency, visit duration, and activities, has been empirically studied in previous research [7–10]. In an international comparative study on 741 individuals, experiences in nature were reported to improve environment-friendly behavior and the perception of experiences in nature [9]. Furthermore, a study which suggested the measure for environment-friendly perception also reported that the level of environmental awareness has a valid correlation with behaviors in natural environments such as forest experience frequency [7].

In summary, positive perception of nature experiences and natural environment are closely related to environment-friendly behaviors including outdoor recreational activities [10–18].

The dominant social paradigm (DSP), which shows rapid economic growth and high resource requirements after the industrial revolution, anthropocentrically evaluates the ecological environment, and regards nature as a commodity to be developed [19–22]. The development of modern civilization and cities, based on the growth of scientific techniques, led to the blind faith that technical progress could unconditionally help human society. It was also criticized as a technofix (technological fix) [23–25].

**Citation:** Kim, D.; Avenzora, R.; Lee, J.-h. Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia. *Forests* **2021**, *12*, 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/ f12121651

Academic Editors: Radu-Daniel Pintilii and Diego Varga

Received: 27 October 2021 Accepted: 25 November 2021 Published: 28 November 2021

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**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Catton and Dunlap (1978) explained people's perception of the natural environment with the 'Environmental Worldview' concept that people's attitude toward the natural environment is changing from a DSP to a 'New Ecological Paradigm (NEP)' [26]. Furthermore, Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) claimed that the previous economic-centered and development-oriented conquer paradigm regarding the natural environment transitioned to an environment-centered NEP [27].

The transition from a DSP to an NEP, starting from the late 20th century, shows a shift from the idea of human superiority to the recognition of the value of nature itself and from acknowledging the inevitability of environmental pollution for economic profit to emphasize the importance of maintaining the health of ecosystems [28–31]. The fundamental difference between these two paradigms is whether humans are viewed separately from or as part of nature [32]. Comparative research on the perception of the natural environment in industrialized developed countries and developing countries has established that countries with a low DSP are highly interested in the environment and have relatively high motivation to resolve environmental issues, while countries with high DSP have lower personal interest in the natural environment due to economic and technical progress [19,20].

After World War II, South Korea achieved the highest rapid economic development among underdeveloped countries [33]. A distinctive phenomenon of Korean society in its rapid economic development can be explained by turbo-capitalism theory [34–36], which is characterized by dichotomous thinking, an unconditional preference for speed, nonreflective judgment, and the sacrifice of the few for the profit of the many. Such a goal-directed rapid development paradigm of Korean society led to insufficient leisure time, excessive labor time, and extremely insufficient time to experience nature [29]. These characteristics were considered severance with nature and hatred toward natural ecology [37–41].

To investigate the correlation between the perception of countries with different GDPs and levels of industrial development toward the natural environment, technical progress and the level of capitalist development were based on the conventional view of nature. Overcoming material poverty is the top priority of developing countries worldwide; therefore, the focus is usually on industrial techniques for economic development, despite environmental pollution, rather than techniques to protect the natural environment [42–44]. A study observed a U-shaped relationship between income level and environmental perception, which can be explained by the difference in economic levels and is similar to the hypothesis of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) [45]. Developing countries in Asia are implementing growth-oriented development policies; the resulting rapid industrialization and urbanization have increased the severity of environmental problems, urban expansion, and pollution [46–48]. However, it has become an important reference point for establishing the natural environment protection policy of Asian countries that have experienced rapid industrial and economic development. Approximately 76% (414 million hectare) of Asian forests are located in the southeast region, and the decrease in the forest area of this region accounts for 25% of the global total decrease [49]. Since Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, by 2.4 million hectares per year [50], the perceived status of Asian people in southeast area toward natural environmental protection policies is drawing more attention. Milbrath (1989) emphasized the transition of perception toward the NEP, which positively impacts the natural environment and formation of naturefriendly values, from the previous human-centered DSP for sustainable development [51]. Because such a paradigm shift results in daily environmentally friendly practices, it has been suggested as the ultimate solution for sustainable development [42–59].

Meanwhile, previous international comparative research on this topic has revealed the relationship between the difference in the natural environment, historical culture, level of economic development, and perception of the natural environment. Compared to Brazil and Mexico, the most dichotomous view of the human exception paradigm was observed in the United States [60]. In a study targeting university students in Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Spain, and the United States, it was found that environmentally friendly perceptions

are reflected in daily practical behaviors [61]. Another similar study result, by Vicente-Molina et al. (2013), surveyed three different economic levels, including pro-environmental behavior and environmental knowledge, of university students in the United States, Mexico, Spain, and Brazil [62]. In a large-scale international comparative study targeting university students from 14 countries in Europe and South America, including the United States, a correlation between positive perception toward the natural environment and naturefriendly attitude was found [63].

For sustainable technical development and technology transfer of the Asian Forest Cooperation Organization (AFoCo) and Official Development Assistance (ODA), the extent of the natural environmental perception of residents in the corresponding society needs to be proactively considered. However, research on natural environmental perception in Asia is insufficient and has only provided simple comparisons until today [64,65]. Consequently, an augmentation strategy for nature-friendly environmental perception based on the level of perception in different Asian regions is required to decrease deforestation and positive responses to climate change. Even though the same Asian countries, the perception of nature and forest conservation might differ by NEP categories and countries, and there is a particular influence factor, which is the hypothesis of this study. Therefore, this study aimed to compare and analyze the characteristic differences of natural environmental perception and investigate popular ecological paradigm facets through a field survey study on the perception and natural recreational behavior in different Asian countries.

### **2. Materials and Methods**

### *2.1. Survey Procedure*

South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia, where the forest area of national land comprises >50% of forests, and urban forests located close to Seoul in South Korea, Taipei in Taiwan, Jakarta in Indonesia were selected as the survey locations (Table 1 and Figure 1). The survey was conducted by researchers each country in the morning and afternoon on weekends when there was a high traffic of visitors; the trained researchers were supported from Yeungnam University in Korea, Dong Hwa University in Taiwan, and Bogor Agricultural University in Indonesia.


**Table 1.** Description of the surveyed urban forest areas and survey schedule.

A structured questionnaire covering general demographic characteristics, visiting behavior (frequency, length of stay, transportation means, companions, and visit motivation), and NEP scale was developed for the survey (Table 2). Only those who voluntarily consented to participate took the survey.

A structured questionnaire covering general demographic characteristics, visiting behavior (frequency, length of stay, transportation means, companions, and visit motivation), and NEP scale was developed for the survey (Table 2). Only those who voluntarily

results collected from a total of 664 respondents were analyzed. The sample comprised

consented to participate took the survey.


**Table 2.** Interview questionnaire.

NEP questions were translated into Korean, Chinese, and Indonesian, and survey results collected from a total of 664 respondents were analyzed. The sample comprised 169 people (84 males and 75 females) from South Korea, 217 (73 males and 144 females) from Taiwan, and 278 (156 males and 12 females) from Indonesia.

The survey was conducted between 2016 and 2018. The data acquisition took approximately three years due to limiting conditions such as the general survey procedure of data acquisition, analysis, errors found, and resurvey; natural weather conditions, including dry and rainy seasons; religious and cultural characteristics such as Ramadan; and difficulties such as communication and time differences in performing international research.

To select the survey locations, we consulted research teams from Yeungnam University in Korea, Dong Hwa University in Taiwan, and Bogor Agricultural University in Indonesia. The selection criteria included a total size of >1 ha, located at the center of the capital with high accessibility and diverse vegetation. The field survey was conducted on Saturdays and Sundays.

### *2.2. Characteristics of Six Surveyed Urban Forests in Seoul, Taipei and Jakarta*

Seoul Forest, Seoul; this is a large-scale urban forest located on the Han River at the center of Seoul, Korea. After transforming a golf course and horse-riding course into nature-friendly civil recreational areas in 2005, this place attracted an average of 0.25 million visitors per day (7–8 million visitors per year) [66]. Ecological experience education programs are provided in the five themes of cultural art, ecological forest, field study, wetland ecology, and waterside areas. There were 415,795 trees of 95 different species in this forest (Table 1). Bukhan Mountain, Seoul; located in the north of downtown Seoul, this functions as a wild natural environmental downtown forest with high accessibility. This location contains more than 1300 species of flora and fauna. There are also many historical and cultural sites, including the Bukhansanseong Fortress with over 2000 years of history and over 100 Buddhist temples [67]. The ecological education center of the Ministry of Environment is located here, providing ecological education to citizens. It is a representative forest recreational area with 5.5 million annual visitors and 71.8 km of walking and hiking trails.

Da'an urban forest, Taipei; this forest is located to the south of downtown Taipei and known as 'Taipei's lung'; approximately 10,000 to 30,000 people visit daily. Natural recreational experiences, such as flower exhibitions, are provided, as well as lakes, playgrounds, and walking trails. The forest consists of 60 different forest tree types [68,69].

Taman Menteng, Jakarta; located at the center of Jakarta, this was a soccer stadium transformed into an urban forest. Here, opportunities for the promotion of health and nature experiences are provided through several sports facilities, greenhouses, lawn plazas, and bicycle and horse-riding trails, and approximately 2200 people visit this urban forest every day (0.8 million visitors per year) [70]. Taman Suropati, Jakarta; in 1920, the Burgemeester Bisschopplein park was made public. It now functions as a recreational leisure space as Taman Suropati in Jakarta [71]. Hutan Kota Srengseng, Jakarta; this forest was created in 1995 and is located in the west of Jakarta. There are various inhabits and high tree density with 2570 trees per ha [72].

### *2.3. Survey Instrument and Statistical Analysis*

The NEP scale test, revised by Dunlap et al. (2000), was used to investigate the level of natural environmental perception [11]. A total of 15 questions were classified under five categories: 'limits to growth', 'anti-anthropocentrism', 'balance of nature', 'antiexceptionalism', and 'ecological crisis' [11]. A five-point scale was used as the response method. The even-numbered questions were composed for reverse scoring, securing an improved balance compared with the existing NEP test. Further, visitor demographic information—that is, gender, age, educational level, and marital status, along with information on the type of visit, such as the motivation to visit, frequency of visit, type of company, and length of visit—were investigated (Table 2).

The collected data were subjected to variance analysis using the statistic software SPSS 25 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ver.25 by IBM SPSS Statistics) to determine the difference between countries and NEP categories, and AMOS 25 (Analysis of Moment Structure ver.25 by IBM SPSS AMOS) was used to confirm the validity of the CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis) model. The reliability verification of the NEP scale for the investigation of natural environmental perception was performed. The internal reliability of each survey location was verified using Cronbach's alpha, and the Cronbach's alphas were 0.798, 0.811, and 0.760 for Seoul, Taipei, and Jakarta, respectively, suggesting its suitability for this research.

### **3. Results**

### *3.1. Visiting Behavior Comparison and NEP Scores in Three Countries*

The demographic and behavioral characteristics of the respondents are shown in Table 3. In terms of visiting behavior, families visiting together were the most frequent in South Korea (36.5%) and Taiwan (53%), whereas individual visits were the most frequent in Indonesia (49.0%). The motivations for visits were outdoor activities (46.8%), such as jogging and walking in South Korea, and experiences in nature such as rest and recharge, relaxation, and breathing fresh air in Taiwan (50.0%) and Indonesia (70.3%). The visiting frequency is closely related to the nature experience volume; thus, it is an important factor in natural environmental perception [41]. The most common frequency of visits was once per month, once per week, and 3–5 times per year in South Korea (42.9%), Taiwan (47.8%), and Indonesia (56.7%), respectively. This indicates that the nature experience volume of the Taiwanese respondents was the highest and that of the Indonesian respondents was the lowest. In terms of visit time, short visits lasting less than 1 h were the most frequent in South Korea (42.1%) and Taiwan (40.1%), and visits lasting less than 2 h were the most frequent in Indonesia (46.7%).

Based on the visiting frequency and time, it was concluded that people visit more frequently and stay for a shorter time in South Korea and Taiwan, while in Indonesia, the frequency of nature experience is low, but visitors stay for a longer time.

Different results in terms of the perception of the natural environment in three countries with different histories, cultures, and natural environments were expected (Table 4).


**Table 3.** Characteristics and visiting behavior of respondents in three countries (%).

**Table 4.** Comparison of the average and variance analysis for NEP scores in three countries.


Notes: \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.

*3.2. Analysis of the NEP in Korea*

The NEP results according to the demographic and behavioral characteristics of South Korea are shown in Table 5. Thus far, several studies have examined the relationship between the level of education and natural environmental perception [73–76]; in this study, the positive perception of highly educated respondents was verified in four NEP categories (*p* < 0.01). No statistically significant response with respect to gender, age, or marital status was found. The difference based on the type of company was verified in two NEP categories, and respondents visiting with family (3.73) showed the most positive perception of the natural environment in the total average NEP score (*p* < 0.05).


**Table 5.** Variance analysis for NEP scores with characteristics and behavior in Korea.

Notes: \* *p* < 0.05, \*\* *p* < 0.01, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001; High school: high school or below; College: college or above; Activity: outdoor activity, nature: nature experience.

> In the ecological crisis category of the motivation to visit, other (4.18) and time spent with children (4.06) were the highest, and no significant difference was found in the other four NEP categories. In terms of visiting frequency, the statistical significance was verified in four NEP categories, excluding anti-exceptionalism. Respondents who visited once per week gave the most positive response (3.83, *p* < 0.01), which corresponded to previous research on the frequency of experiences in nature and perceptions of the natural environment [41,77–81].

> Thus, based on the investigation results, level of education, type of company, motivation to visit, and frequency of visits were found to be statistically significant factors affecting the level of natural environmental perception in South Korea.

### *3.3. Analysis of the NEP in Taiwan*

The NEP results, depending on the demographic and behavioral characteristics of the survey participants in Taiwan, are presented in Table 6. There was no significant difference in NEP scores depending on age, motivation to visit, or length of stay. The NEP scores with age and level of education were statistically significant only in the eco-crisis category, and females (4.21) and university students (4.20) showed a higher NEP scores than males (4.05) and high school students (3.98), respectively (*p* < 0.05).

Married (4.17) and single (4.05) respondents had a positive natural environmental perception, presenting obvious contrast with bereaved respondents (3.37) (*p* < 0.05). Marital status generally affects human quality of life [82–84]. Based on the analysis results of Taiwanese respondents, it was concluded that marital status is significantly positively correlated with the perception of the natural environment.

A significant difference was found in the limits to the growth category of the company type. Visiting alone was the most common (4.13), followed by visiting friends (4.00), family (3.99), and neighbors and groups (3.33) (*p* < 0.05). Partial correlation with the type of company was identified, and individual visitors were found to sensitively recognize the limitations of the growth of mankind in the global environment.


**Table 6.** Variance analysis for NEP scores with characteristics and behavior in Taiwan.

Notes: \* *p* < 0.05, \*\* *p* < 0.01; High school: high school or below; College: college or above; Marial status: married or living together, divorced, or separated.

> In terms of frequency of visits, the limits to growth (*p* < 0.05), anti-exceptionalism (*p* < 0.01), and eco-crisis categories (*p* < 0.01) were all statistically significant, and a more positive perception appeared with a higher frequency of visits. Similar to the case of South Korea, the frequency of visits was deduced to be a major influential factor for the NEP (Table 4) in Taiwan, which is in line with previous studies on the frequency of visits and preference for the natural environment [41,77–81]. However, those who visited once a month had a lower perception in all categories compared to groups with a higher frequency of visits, showing different patterns compared to extant research results.

> Thus, the statistical significance between NEP scores and factors such as gender, level of education, marital status, type of company, and frequency of visits in Taiwan was not verified completely, but by categories partly.

### *3.4. Analysis of the NEP in Indonesia*

The NEP results according to the demographic and behavioral characteristics of Indonesia are presented in Table 7. According to the age-group comparison, the total average natural environmental perception of the respondents in their 50s (3.15) and over 60s (3.15) was the most positive (*p* < 0.05), and those in their 50s in the balance of nature category (3.85, *p* < 0.05), in their 20s and 60s in the anti-exceptionalism category (3.19, *p* < 0.05), and in their 40s in the eco-crisis category (3.49, *p* < 0.05) displayed a high NEP scores. These results are in good agreement with previous research results, which reported more positive perceptions of the natural environment and nature-based leisure with increasing age [85–90].

In the analysis of different levels of education, high school graduate respondents had a more positive natural environmental perception in the balance of nature (3.71, *p* < 0.05) and anti-exceptionalism (3.06, *p* < 0.05) categories compared to the university graduate respondents, in contrast with the results from South Korea and Taiwan. The positive groups for the NEP categories differed in terms of marital status, displaying varied results compared to South Korea and Taiwan; hence, it was difficult to determine a pattern for interpretation.


**Table 7.** Variance analysis for NEP scores by characteristics and behavior in Indonesia.

Notes: \* *p* < 0.05, \*\* *p* < 0.01, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001; High school: high school or below; College: college or above, marriage status: married or living together, divorced, or separated, activity: outdoor activity, nature: nature experience.

> In terms of comparison with different types of companies, those who visited with family (3.14, *p* < 0.05) and friends (3.13, *p* < 0.05) had a more positive perception of the natural environment than those who made 'individual' visits, and these results were also obtained for the balance of nature category. In terms of motivation to visit, the group visiting for a nature experience showed a positive response in the limits to growth (*p* < 0.05) and the balance of nature (*p* = 0.052) categories, and the group visiting to spend time with their children (3.14, *p* < 0.01) showed a high value in the anti-exceptionalism category. Although there was no statistical significance (*p* = 0.503), these results are similar to the NEP results in Taiwan, where nature experience (4.18) and children (4.09) were the main motivations for visiting.

> Similar to South Korea and Taiwan, which displayed high NEP scores with an increasing frequency of visits, statistical significance was verified in the anti-exceptionalism (*p* < 0.01) and balance of nature (*p* = 0.050) categories. In terms of the length of visit, only the balance of nature category was statistically significant (*p* < 0.05), and the NEP score of respondents who stayed for less than 1 h (3.74) was high.

> Thus, the factors affecting the level of natural environmental perception of the participants from Indonesia were age, level of education, marital status, type of company, motivation to visit, frequency of visit, and length of visit.

### *3.5. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Differences in Three Countries*

To verify the validity of the NEP measurement variables, a CFA was individually conducted for South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia (Table 8). The final model consisted of a total of 15 observed variables, three from each of the five latent variables, that is, limits to growth, anti-anthropocentrism, balance of nature, anti-exceptionalism, and eco-crisis, according to the NEP question structure. To verify the discriminant validity, construct reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) were calculated by the formula of Hair et al. [91]. Table 9 summarizes the suitability of the models for each country.

$$CR = \frac{\left(\sum \text{standardized factor}\right)^2}{\left(\sum \text{standardized factor}\right)^2 + \left(\sum \text{Error variance}\right)^2}$$

$$AVE = \frac{\sum \text{standardized factor}^2}{Number \text{ of items}}$$

**Table 8.** CFA model regression coefficient and model reliability for NEP scores of survey locations (Korea/Taiwan/Indonesia).


ß-coeff.: Standardized coefficient, CR: Construct reliability, AVE: Average variance extracted.

**Table 9.** CFA model suitability for NEP scores of survey locations (Korea/Taiwan/Indonesia).


Notes: \* *p* < 0.05, \*\* *p* < 0.01, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.

The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), which is the interpretation criterion for suitability, was <0.6, and thus satisfactory for all three models [92]. The IFI (Incremental Fit Index), TLI (Tucker–Lewis index), and CFI (Comparative Fit Index) were almost >0.9 in all cases, except for Indonesia's TLI at 0.880, confirming good suitability [93].

Based on the standardized lambda analysis results for each location, the limits to growth of South Korea and the eco-crisis of Taiwan and Indonesia were relatively high (Table 8). South Korea showed loaded values of 0.829 to 0.387, and the factor loaded values for Questions 1 and 6 in limits to growth and Question 5 in eco-crisis were high. Taiwan showed loaded values of 0.848 to 0.465, and the factor loaded values for Question 3 in balance of nature, Question 14 in anti-exceptionalism, and Questions 5 and 15 in eco-crisis were high. Indonesia displayed loaded values of 0.795 to 0.430 and high factor loading values for Question 6 in limits to growth, Question 3 in balance of nature, Question 14 in anti-exceptionalism, and Questions 10 and 15 in eco-crisis. None of the survey locations showed a major explanation for anti-anthropocentrism.

It is difficult to deduce a model that is applicable to three different Asian countries, and in our models, the factor with a loaded value <0.5, appeared in all survey locations. Nevertheless, the models presented an AVE value >0.5, and CR >0.7, satisfying the internal consistency and convergent validity (Table 9).

### **4. Discussion**

### *4.1. International Comparative Study in Asian Countries*

Based on the research results on the relationship between nature recreational behavioral patterns of residents, New Environmental Paradigm, and the demographic characteristics, the NEP scores of South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia showed a statistically significant difference in all categories. Previous studies identified gender, age, educational level, and economic power as the factors affecting perception toward the natural environment [94,95], and the current study also obtained the identical results. Although they are all Asian communities, different results were obtained because of their different histories, cultures, and natural environments [60,61].

The difference in NEP response scores can be explained by the difference in economic level, and similar to the hypothesis of Environmental Kuznets Curve [45], the relationship between economic level and environmental perception was observed. Indonesia is economically developing, and citizens' perceptions of the natural environment are not positive when compared with South Korea and Taiwan. However, Taiwan, which achieved rapid economic growth earlier than South Korea, showed the highest NEP scores. 'Limits to growth' in Korea and 'eco-crisis' in Taiwan and Indonesia were analyzed with a high standardized coefficient in the CFA model.

The level of education, type of company, and frequency of visits were the most common factors affecting NEP in all three countries. A higher NEP score was observed with a higher frequency of visits and when respondents were accompanied by family and friends. The South Korean and Taiwanese participants presented a higher perception of environmental conservation with a higher level of education (see Table 3), similar to the results of previous studies [73–76], while the opposite results were observed in Indonesia.

### *4.2. Critical Elements: Having Opportunity for Nature Experience Influencing NEP*

Many previous studies have thus far reported that a higher frequency of visits to a green area leads to an increase in nature experience, positive natural environmental perception, and nature-friendly behavior [41,77–81,96]. This is similar to Wade and Swanston's (2013) claim that experience influences perception, which refers to the correlation between the frequency, or forest experience, and the perception of the natural environment [97].

The frequency of visits in Indonesia, where leisure time was insufficient due to economic development, and its NEP score was the lowest. This is in line with a previous study that revealed the relationship between the difference in forest experience opportunities by GDP and perception of the natural environment [98].

The GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity was highest in Taiwan at \$55,078, followed by Korea at \$43,124 and Indonesia at \$12,074 [99], which correspond to the order of the three countries for the frequency of visits to urban forests as well as the level of NEP. It can be interpreted as a correlation between the economic level of ordinary citizens, securing opportunities to experience forests (frequency of visits), and perception of the natural environment (NEP).

In South Korea, during the rapid industrial development phase in the 70s, people had excessive working hours and insufficient leisure time for any nature experience [33,41]. The increase in the frequency of forest experience is closely related to the improvement of natural environmental perception and is also in accordance with the augmentation of leisure time and household income through national economic development.

As demonstrated by Bentler and Speckart (1979), frequent visits to green areas would inspire the perception of the natural environment, which is expected to induce naturefriendly behavior [100]. Therefore, a policy that can increase opportunities to experience nature is necessary.

### *4.3. Study Limitations*

There are two major limitations in this study that could be addressed by future research. For this international comparative study, different samples in the six locations in three countries. To compare countries, sampling locations, customs, climate, history, and culture should consider how representative the samples are of the respective populations because these may have influenced the respondents' mindset. However, it was impossible to completely match the survey period and the additional survey by location because it did not sufficiently consider each location's culture, religious event period, and seasonal weather.

However, this study presents a meaningful international comparative study of Asia before the COVID-19 outbreak nevertheless, since the paradigm has changed significantly in the field of natural recreation before and after COVID-19 [101–103].

In addition, these survey locations demonstrate significant differences, preventing the development of a single CFA model to explain all three Asian countries. A follow-up study may consider applying various and detailed indicators of each country's social, economic, leisure, and tourism fields in addition to the factors used in the current study.

### **5. Conclusions**

The purpose of this study was to compare and analyze the differences of environmental paradigms through a field survey on the perception and recreational behavior of visitors in six different urban forests in three other Asian countries. Overall, this study found that an increase in the frequency of forest experiences was closely related to improving positive environmental perception, and this is also in accordance with the increase in leisure time through national economic development. Understanding natural environmental perceptions and socio-economic conditions in South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia will lead to easy accessibility and a high frequency of visits to secure sufficient nature experience capacity. Developing an explanatory model that fits the current status of each country is another further research.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, J.-h.L.; methodology, J.-h.L.; validation, J.-h.L. and R.A.; formal analysis, J.-h.L.; investigation, D.K. and R.A.; resources, D.K. and R.A.; data curation, J. h.L.; writing—original draft preparation, D.K. and J.-h.L.; writing—review and editing, J.-h.L.; visualization, D.K., R.A. and J.-h.L.; supervision, J.-h.L.; project administration, J.-h.L.; funding acquisition, J.-h.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Acknowledgments:** The author would like to thank Chieh-Lu Li and Hung-Hua Chen, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, for obtaining the data.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **References**

