*3.1. UV-Vis and FTIR Study of Sn2+-PPHs Metal Complex*

It's worth noting that coordination chemistry involves complicated coordinated systems, complex molecules, or simply complexes. The lights and empty orbital metallic core that are coordinated by donors of electron pairs are examples of coordination compounds [19]. Coordination chemistry produces metal complexes that have a significant absorption characteristic in visible areas.

Figure 1 shows the absorption spectrum of the complicated colloidal suspension (Sn2+ - PPHs metal complex), which is equivalent to that of organometallic-based materials and semiconductors [20]. The absorption spectrum is notable for covering the whole visible range. The Sn2+-complex displays absorption even at high wavelength ranges to nearinfrared, as shown in the inset of Figure 1, meaning that increase the optical absorption and light harvesting. Such absorption of a broader spectrum of solar radiation shows the use of such material for various applications. The current UV-Vis data for metal-PPHs complexes generated using green methods are similar to those shown by other studies [21]. *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

The transition of electron of n−π\* of methylxanthines, catechins, and caffeine

The FTIR spectra of the extracted BT's are shown in Figure 2a. The emergence of many peaks is viewed as the FTIR spectrum's main characteristic. The C-H stretching of carboxylic acid and aliphatic group is responsible for the current peaks in the range of 2913–2847 cm−1 [26].The existence of a band at 1623 cm−1 could also be used to identify the aromatic ring's C=C stretch [16,19,26]. It is worth mentioning that the existing FTIR spectrum's overall characteristics match those found in prior investigations [27,28]. The caffeine spectrum has recently been discovered to feature several changes in the range between 1700 and 400 cm−1 (Figure 2a). The existence of a range of functional groups with stretching and binding movements, for instance carbonyl, methyl, imidazole, and pyrimidine fragments, can be seen in these changes [29]. The key functional groups in tea, as shown by the FTIR spectra, are PPHs, carboxylic acid, and amino acids. PPHs have been demonstrated to interact with the metal cation to produce colloidal metal-PPHs

tion band in UV-visible range is required for metallic's with diameters in the nano range [24]. Nevertheless, the lack of this band in the current Sn2+-PPHs complex suggests that the PPHs capping inhibited the complex system's metal properties from forming on particle surfaces. Cu NPs in chitosan-based PEs produce an SPR band in the region of 500

**Figure 1.** UV-visabsorption spectrum for Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. **Figure 1.** UV-visabsorption spectrum for Sn2+-PPHs metal complex.

and 800 nm, according to earlier study [25].

*3.2. FTIR Studyof BTand Sn2+-PPHs Metal Complex* 

complex solutions, according to the literature [30].

The transition of electron of n−π\* of methylxanthines, catechins, and caffeine emerges as an absorbance band between 200 and 350 nm. The C=O chromophore in caffeine has a band absorbance of 278 nm [22,23]. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption band in UV-visible range is required for metallic's with diameters in the nano range [24]. Nevertheless, the lack of this band in the current Sn2+-PPHs complex suggests that the PPHs capping inhibited the complex system's metal properties from forming on particle surfaces. Cu NPs in chitosan-based PEs produce an SPR band in the region of 500 and 800 nm, according to earlier study [25].

## *3.2. FTIR Studyof BTand Sn2+-PPHs Metal Complex*

The FTIR spectra of the extracted BT's are shown in Figure 2a. The emergence of many peaks is viewed as the FTIR spectrum's main characteristic. The C-H stretching of carboxylic acid and aliphatic group is responsible for the current peaks in the range of 2913–2847 cm−<sup>1</sup> [26].The existence of a band at 1623 cm−<sup>1</sup> could also be used to identify the aromatic ring's C=C stretch [16,19,26]. It is worth mentioning that the existing FTIR spectrum's overall characteristics match those found in prior investigations [27,28]. The caffeine spectrum has recently been discovered to feature several changes in the range between 1700 and 400 cm−<sup>1</sup> (Figure 2a). The existence of a range of functional groups with stretching and binding movements, for instance carbonyl, methyl, imidazole, and pyrimidine fragments, can be seen in these changes [29]. The key functional groups in tea, as shown by the FTIR spectra, are PPHs, carboxylic acid, and amino acids. PPHs have been demonstrated to interact with the metal cation to produce colloidal metal-PPHs complex solutions, according to the literature [30].

Figure 2b shows the FTIR spectrum of the Sn2+-PPHs metal compound. A sequence of peaks in the region between 1700 and 400 cm−<sup>1</sup> can be noticed in both Figure 2a,b; their intensities were nearly modified as common characteristics.

FTIR is used to investigate the colloidal Sn2+-PPHs metal as one of the characteristics of the Sn2+-complex. Wang et al. [21] investigated the use of eucalyptus leaf extract in the production of Fe-PPHs complexes. The interaction between Fe2+ and PPHs was stressed as the mechanism for forming the complex.

In the FTIR spectrum of Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes, the distinctive bands of BT are repeated, but the peak intensities have reduced (see Figure 2b).

When the Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes are formed, the bands of 2914 and 2850 cm−<sup>1</sup> in BT bands have changed, and currently come into view at 2914 and 2845 cm−<sup>1</sup> , respectively. This is described on the basis of the generation of coordination interactions between PPHs and Sn2+ ions, which results in vibrational decrease and arises in reducing mass. More specifically, the development of coordination bonds among PPHs and Sn2+ metal ions are caused by an attraction between the Sn2+ ion's empty orbitals and the ligand pairs [31]. In the following section, the mechanism of coordination between the Sn2+ ion and the interested ligands is schematically described, as shown in Figure 3. Wang et al. [21] used a range of extracts, containing melaleucanesophila, eucalyptus tereticornis, and rosemarinus, to synthesize and characterize iron-PPHs complexes. The authors have demonstrated that iron ions and PPHs interact together, forming iron-PPHs complexes. FTIR was used by Coinceanainn et al. to investigate the complexation between the aflavinand aluminum (III). The polyphenolic chemicals are ligands observed in BT extract [32].

FTIR analysis can be used to inspect the interaction nature between Sn2+ metal cations and caffeine, as well as PPHs in tea extracts, as illustrated in Figure 3. The interaction of the Sn2+-metal ion with BT extract includes the production of a number of complexes (see Figure 3). Metal ion interactions with tea components have already been confirmed [26,33]. Figure 3 depicts three different potential complexes. Sn2+-PPHs metal complex, as expected (see Figure 3A), and Sn2+-caffeine are also expected (Figure 3B). Additionally, as demonstrated in Figure 3C, there is a probability of interaction between Sn2+ and both caffeine and PPHs in a complex. The EPR technique had previously been used to study the

development of complexes by PPHs in BT extract and metal ions [33]. The nature of metal complex production was investigated utilizing FTIR in the current work.

The use of FTIR spectroscopy to measure interactions among ions or atoms in a PE or PC systems is crucial. The interactions that occur can cause a shift in the polymer electrolyte's vibrational modes [34]. Figure 4 shows the FTIR of PVA and PVA loaded samples, respectively. C–H rocking of PVA is attributed to the band at 821 cm−<sup>1</sup> [34]. For samples containing 15% (*v*/*v*) and 30% (*v*/*v*) of dopant material, this peak changes to 818 and 838 cm−<sup>1</sup> , respectively. *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23

**Figure 2.** Spectra of the FTIR for the (**a**) extracted BTleaf and (**b**) colloidal Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. **Figure 2.** Spectra of the FTIR for the (**a**) extracted BTleaf and (**b**) colloidal Sn2+-PPHs metal complex.

production of Fe-PPHs complexes. The interaction between Fe2+ and PPHs was stressed

In the FTIR spectrum of Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes, the distinctive bands of BT are

Figure 2b shows the FTIR spectrum of the Sn2+-PPHs metal compound. A sequence of peaks in the region between 1700 and 400 cm−1 can be noticed in both Figure 2a,b; their

repeated, but the peak intensities have reduced (see Figure 2b).

as the mechanism for forming the complex.

intensities were nearly modified as common characteristics.

tract [32].

When the Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes are formed, the bands of 2914 and 2850 cm−1 in BT bands have changed, and currently come into view at 2914 and 2845 cm−1, respectively. This is described on the basis of the generation of coordination interactions between PPHs and Sn2+ ions, which results in vibrational decrease and arises in reducing mass. More specifically, the development of coordination bonds among PPHs and Sn2+metal ions are caused by an attraction between the Sn2+ ion's empty orbitals and the ligand pairs [31]. In the following section, the mechanism of coordination between the Sn2+ ion and the interested ligands is schematically described, as shown in Figure 3. Wang et al. [21] used a range of extracts, containing melaleucanesophila, eucalyptus tereticornis, and rosemarinus, to synthesize and characterize iron-PPHs complexes. The authors have demonstrated that iron ions and PPHs interact together, forming iron-PPHs com-

**Figure 3.** The proposed chemical structure for the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex formation mechanism. (**A**) Sn2+-catechin metal complex, (**B**) Sn2+-caffeine complex, and (**C**) interaction between Sn2+ and both caffeine and catechin. **Figure 3.** The proposed chemical structure for the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex formation mechanism. (**A**) Sn2+-catechin metal complex, (**B**) Sn2+-caffeine complex, and (**C**) interaction between Sn2+ and both caffeine and catechin. samples, respectively. C–H rocking of PVA is attributed to the band at 821 cm−1 [34]. For samples containing 15% (*v*/*v*) and 30% (*v*/*v*) of dopant material, this peak changes to 818 and 838 cm−1, respectively.

**Figure 4.** FTIR spectra for pure PVA and loaded films. **Figure 4.** FTIR spectra for pure PVA and loaded films.

Pure PVA absorption maxima at 1313 and 1410 cm−1 have been ascribed to C–OH plane bending and CH2 wagging, respectively [35]. The peak at 1316 cm−1 vanishes in Pure PVA absorption maxima at 1313 and 1410 cm−<sup>1</sup> have been ascribed to C–OH plane bending and CH<sup>2</sup> wagging, respectively [35]. The peak at 1316 cm−<sup>1</sup> vanishes in doped samples, while the peak at 1410 cm−<sup>1</sup> changes to 1422 cm−<sup>1</sup> and 1468 cm−<sup>1</sup>

doped samples, while the peak at 1410 cm−1 changes to 1422 cm−1 and 1468 cm−1 for samples including 15 and 30% (*v*/*v*), respectively. The O-H stretching vibration is responsible for a broad and intense absorption peak centered at 3339 cm−1 [36]. It is seen that the ab-

might be related to the thickness of the films as the FTIR is thickness dependent. The strong intra and inter type hydrogen bonding can be associated with the high intensity of this band [34]. This band shifts and its intensity are considerably reduced in doped materials. For the doped samples, the peak at 1644 cm−1, which is attributed to C=O stretching of the acetate groups, that is the remaining component of PVA, is changed to 1607 cm−1 [35]. At 2905 cm−1, the band analogous to C-H asymmetric stretching occurs [36]. For the loaded films, there is a noticeable change and substantial drop in this absorption band. The peak at 1076 cm−1 in Figure 4, which is a typical stretching vibration of –C–O–

The XRD patterns of pure PVA and PVA doped with 30% (*v*/*v*) and 40% (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs complex are shown in Figure 5. Pure PVA's XRD pattern revealed a large peak about 20° that corresponded to the semi-crystalline structure of pure PVA [10]. A side from the major peak, two broad peaks may be found at 2θ = 23.4° and 41.18°. Based on the literature, the (101), (200) and (111) crystalline planes of PVA are responsible for the typical diffraction peaks at 2θ = 20°, 23.43° and 41.15°, respectively [37], and their shifts in the doped PVA sample are due to the complex formation between the functional groups

in pure PVA [37], is displaced to 1090 cm−1 and its strength diminishes.

of PVA and surface groups of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex.

*3.3. XRD Analysis* 

for samples including 15 and 30% (*v*/*v*), respectively. The O-H stretching vibration is responsible for a broad and intense absorption peak centered at 3339 cm−<sup>1</sup> [36]. It is seen that the absorption peak at the 3339 cm−<sup>1</sup> is a saturated flat pattern rather than a shoulder peak. This might be related to the thickness of the films as the FTIR is thickness dependent. The strong intra and inter type hydrogen bonding can be associated with the high intensity of this band [34]. This band shifts and its intensity are considerably reduced in doped materials. For the doped samples, the peak at 1644 cm−<sup>1</sup> , which is attributed to C=O stretching of the acetate groups, that is the remaining component of PVA, is changed to 1607 cm−<sup>1</sup> [35]. At 2905 cm−<sup>1</sup> , the band analogous to C-H asymmetric stretching occurs [36]. For the loaded films, there is a noticeable change and substantial drop in this absorption band. The peak at 1076 cm−<sup>1</sup> in Figure 4, which is a typical stretching vibration of –C–O– in pure PVA [37], is displaced to 1090 cm−<sup>1</sup> and its strength diminishes.

#### *3.3. XRD Analysis*

The XRD patterns of pure PVA and PVA doped with 30% (*v*/*v*) and 40% (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs complex are shown in Figure 5. Pure PVA's XRD pattern revealed a large peak about 20◦ that corresponded to the semi-crystalline structure of pure PVA [10]. A side from the major peak, two broad peaks may be found at 2θ = 23.4◦ and 41.18◦ . Based on the literature, the (101), (200) and (111) crystalline planes of PVA are responsible for the typical diffraction peaks at 2θ = 20◦ , 23.43◦ and 41.15◦ , respectively [37], and their shifts in the doped PVA sample are due to the complex formation between the functional groups of PVA and surface groups of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

**Figure 5.** XRD spectra for pure PVA and doped films. **Figure 5.** XRD spectra for pure PVA and doped films.

#### *3.4. Absorption Study*

*3.4. Absorption Study*  The reaction of a substance to electromagnetic radiation, predominantly visible light, is referred to as an "optical property." Sometimes it's more practical to consider electromagnetic radiation (e.m.r) from the perspective of quantum physics, in which the e.m.r is considered as energy packets, i.e., as photons, instead of waves. The following The reaction of a substance to electromagnetic radiation, predominantly visible light, is referred to as an "optical property." Sometimes it's more practical to consider electromagnetic radiation (e.m.r) from the perspective of quantum physics, in which the e.m.r is considered as energy packets, i.e., as photons, instead of waves. The following relationship is used to quantify and characterize the energy *E* of a photon.

$$E = lv\nu = hc/\lambda\tag{1}$$

*E = hυ = hc/λ* (1) where *h* stands for Planck constant (6.63 × 10−34 J/s), *c* is denotes to the light speed in free space(3 × 108 m/s), and *λ* is the photon wavelength. Figure 6 illustrates the results. It is clear that the PCs absorption spectra include substantially all of the relevant areas of the UV-visible to NIR ranges. It is well known that the majority of the metal-complex compounds have excellent optical absorption and emission, with wavelengths extending from 600 to 700 nm [38]. This can be explained by the creation of orbital overlaps, which where *<sup>h</sup>* stands for Planck constant (6.63 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup>−<sup>34</sup> J/s), *<sup>c</sup>* is denotes to the light speed in free space(3 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>8</sup> m/s), and *<sup>λ</sup>* is the photon wavelength. Figure <sup>6</sup> illustrates the results. It is clear that the PCs absorption spectra include substantially all of the relevant areas of the UV-visible to NIR ranges. It is well known that the majority of the metal-complex compounds have excellent optical absorption and emission, with wavelengths extending from 600 to 700 nm [38]. This can be explained by the creation of orbital overlaps, which

is aided by ligands (functional groups). As a result, electrons can transfer energy via the

is smaller than the energy difference between two levels of electrons. Absorption happens at higher photon energies (usually in 10−15 s) when the valence electrons transition

between two electronic energy states [3].

is aided by ligands (functional groups). As a result, electrons can transfer energy via the structure, which is what causes the absorption spectra [39]. The photon is not absorbed and the substance would be transparent to the photon when the incident photon energy is smaller than the energy difference between two levels of electrons. Absorption happens at higher photon energies (usually in 10−<sup>15</sup> s) when the valence electrons transition between two electronic energy states [3].

**Figure 6.** Absorption spectra for pure PVA and loaded films.

The incorporation of metal-complexes into polymers for optoelectronic device and photonic device applications is said to be still under investigation [40]. Organic–inorganic composites have received a lot of attention as a potential material for a novel generation of nonlinear optical, electronic and optical instruments, along with biological labels [41].

#### *3.5. Absorption Edge Study*

The optical energy band gap (*Eg*) of amorphous and crystalline materials can be estimated using the optical absorption spectra. The value and nature of the *E<sup>g</sup>* can be measured using fundamental absorption, which relates to electron excitation from valance to conduction band [42]. It is true that a light wave experiences losses or attenuation when it travels through a substance. The absorption coefficient, often known as the fractional reduction in intensity over distance, is calculated as follows [43]:

$$\alpha = -1/I \times \text{dI/d} \\ \text{x} = \text{(2.303/d)} \times A \tag{2}$$

where, *I* denotes to the intensity and *A* is absorption quantity. The ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) is valuable method for studying electronic transitions.

When optical transitions begin to occur over a material's fundamental band gap, the absorption edge is formed [44]. When PVA is transformed to tapered band gap polymer hybrid by integrating green produced metal-complex, a new study domain in optical

materials is generated. Following that, a sole approach for polymer hybrid production using green technologies is developed. Figure 7 depicts the large absorption edge shift to lower photon energy. For the sample loaded with 30% (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex, the value of absorption edge decreased substantially from 6.3 eV to 1.8 eV. (Figure 7). The absorption edge values are shown in Table 1. The absorption coefficient is determined using Equation (2). The intercept of the linear parts of the spectra of absorption coefficient with the axis of photon energy gives the value of the absorption edge. The absorption coefficient values reported in this work are very similar to those obtained for loaded polyacetylene (trans-(CH)x) and polypyrrole [45]. This is connected to the charge transfer complex creation in PC samples. Materials science has found molecule charge transfer materials to be an interesting and a good candidate for assessing molecular CT mechanisms, as well as changes in transport, magnetic, optical, dielectric, and structural properties. CT complexes have fascinating electrical, optical, and photoelectrical properties, and they have a good role in a variety of electro-physical and optical processes [46]. PMMA was doped with Alq3 by Duvenhageetet al. for application in optoelectronics [47]. There was a decrease in device performance and efficiency due to the quick breakdown of organometallic and conjugated polymers [47]. The color of the hybrid samples necessitates a change in the hybrid films' band structure. Because there is enough evidence for a link between color and electrical structure in conductive polymers, polypyrrole's small *E*<sup>g</sup> can be predicted from its blackish color [45]. As a result, the optical property of polymeric materials is deduced from their color. *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23 materials to be an interesting and a good candidate for assessing molecular CT mechanisms, as well as changes in transport, magnetic, optical, dielectric, and structural properties. CT complexes have fascinating electrical, optical, and photoelectrical properties, and they have a good role in a variety of electro-physical and optical processes [46]. PMMA was doped with Alq3 by Duvenhageetet al. for application in optoelectronics [47]. There was a decrease in device performance and efficiency due to the quick breakdown of organometallic and conjugated polymers [47]. The color of the hybrid samples necessitates a change in the hybrid films' band structure. Because there is enough evidence for a link between color and electrical structure in conductive polymers, polypyrrole's small *E*g can be predicted from its blackish color [45]. As a result, the optical property of polymeric materials is deduced from their color.

**Figure 7.** Absorption coefficient vs. *hυ* for PVA and loaded films. **Figure 7.** Absorption coefficient vs. *hυ* for PVA and loaded films.

**Table 1.** Absorption edge for PVA and loaded films. **Table 1.** Absorption edge for PVA and loaded films.

*3.6. Refractive Index Study* 


The refractive index (*n*) and its dispersion behavior are two of the most essential features of an optical material. In optical communication and spectrum dispersion device design, refractive index dispersion is a vital element [48]. Some models are used to

8 depicts the value of (*n*) in relation to wavelength. It has been verified that higher *n* values are associated with integrated films that show significant dopant dispersion. It is seen that, as the % (*v*/*v*) of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex rises, the value of *n* rises with it. The *n* is a function of both polarizability and density of a medium at constant temperature and pressure [49]. As a result, a material's refractive index is one of the most im-

#### *3.6. Refractive Index Study* retarded while passing through it. In general, any method that enhances a material's electron density also enhances its refractive index [50]. Moreover, when compared to

is the sample thickness.

samples complex refractive index:

The refractive index (*n*) and its dispersion behavior are two of the most essential features of an optical material. In optical communication and spectrum dispersion device design, refractive index dispersion is a vital element [48]. Some models are used to measure the optical *E<sup>g</sup>* using the dispersion area of *n*, as shown in the next section. Figure 8 depicts the value of (*n*) in relation to wavelength. It has been verified that higher *n* values are associated with integrated films that show significant dopant dispersion. It is seen that, as the % (*v*/*v*) of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex rises, the value of *n* rises with it. The *n* is a function of both polarizability and density of a medium at constant temperature and pressure [49]. As a result, a material's refractive index is one of the most important factors in measuring its optical efficiency. The following is an illustration of a samples complex refractive index: pure PVA, the dispersion behavior of refractive index verses wavelength can be seen for all doped films. This is the result of the doped samples' density growing. Two methodologies are considered to improve the *n* value of polymers, depending on the method of synthesis: heavy atoms, for instance, polymers loaded with halogens and/or sulfur atoms [51], and the integration of metal or inorganic NPs into polymers to produce compounds with relatively high *n* values [52]. In all circumstances, there are two primary obstacles when manipulating *n*. To begin, the first way faces two challenges: the technological and financial difficulties of incorporating heavy atoms into polymer matrices [53]. Second, when inorganic NPs (ZrO2, TiO2 or Au NPs) are combined with nanofillers, aggregation occurs [52,54]. As a result, significant surface energy is formed, along with low compatibility with the polymer. In this work, Sn2+-PPHs metal complex was injected into the PVA

portant factors in measuring its optical efficiency. The following is an illustration of a

$$n^\*(\lambda) = n(\lambda) + k(\lambda) \tag{3}$$

∗() = () + () (3)

2

<sup>+</sup> <sup>=</sup> (4)

<sup>2</sup> (1 ) 4

×

*R R*

(1 ) *<sup>K</sup>*

*K* is the extinction coefficient and is equal to *αλ*/4*πt* in Equations (3) and (4), where *t*

As photons are decelerated as they pass into a material because of interaction with electrons, the *n* is greater than one. The greater the *n* of a material, the more photons are

*Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

The *k* and *n* relationship is formulated as follow [35]:

(1 )

−

*R R*

*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>−</sup> <sup>−</sup>

+ 

The single oscillator model proposed by Wemple and DiDomenico [55] is used to The *k* and *n* relationship is formulated as follow [35]:

$$n = \left[\frac{(1+R)}{(1-R)}\right] + \sqrt{\frac{4\times R}{\left(1-R\right)^2}} - K^2 \tag{4}$$

bonding and connects the charge distribution and coordination number through each *K* is the extinction coefficient and is equal to *αλ*/4*πt* in Equations (3) and (4), where *t* is the sample thickness.

As photons are decelerated as they pass into a material because of interaction with electrons, the *n* is greater than one. The greater the *n* of a material, the more photons are retarded while passing through it. In general, any method that enhances a material's electron density also enhances its refractive index [50]. Moreover, when compared to pure PVA, the dispersion behavior of refractive index verses wavelength can be seen for all doped films. This is the result of the doped samples' density growing. Two methodologies are considered to improve the *n* value of polymers, depending on the method of synthesis: heavy atoms, for instance, polymers loaded with halogens and/or sulfur atoms [51], and the integration of metal or inorganic NPs into polymers to produce compounds with relatively high *n* values [52]. In all circumstances, there are two primary obstacles when manipulating *n*. To begin, the first way faces two challenges: the technological and financial difficulties of

incorporating heavy atoms into polymer matrices [53]. Second, when inorganic NPs (ZrO2, TiO<sup>2</sup> or Au NPs) are combined with nanofillers, aggregation occurs [52,54]. As a result, significant surface energy is formed, along with low compatibility with the polymer. In this work, Sn2+-PPHs metal complex was injected into the PVA polymer in order to modify the (*n*) value.

The single oscillator model proposed by Wemple and DiDomenico [55] is used to study refractive index dispersion (*no*) in the normal dispersion zone. A dispersion energy parameter (*E<sup>d</sup>* ) was incorporated into this model to represent the *no*. It is a measure of the strength of the inter band optical transition. This parameter is directly related to chemical bonding and connects the charge distribution and coordination number through each unit cell [56]. Therefore, the energy of an oscillator is proportional to a single oscillator parameter (*Eo*). This semi-empirical formula can be used to connect the refractive index to the photon energy below the interband absorption edge. *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23 unit cell [56]. Therefore, the energy of an oscillator is proportional to a single oscillator parameter (*Eo*). This semi-empirical formula can be used to connect the refractive index to the photon energy below the interband absorption edge.

$$m^2 - 1 = \frac{E\_d E\_o}{\left[E\_o^2 - (h\upsilon)^2\right]}\tag{5}$$

Plotting 1/(*n* <sup>2</sup> <sup>−</sup> 1) against (*hυ*) <sup>2</sup> yields the values of (*E<sup>d</sup>* ) and (*Eo*) from the slope and intercept of the linear fitted lines, as shown in Figure 9. Table 2 shows the *E<sup>o</sup>* and *E<sup>d</sup>* values that were calculated. The single oscillator energy (*Eo*) declines as the % (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex increases, whereas the dispersion energy (*E<sup>d</sup>* ) rises. The static refractive index at zero energy *n<sup>o</sup>* is measured from the linear part extrapolation of Figure 9 to intersect the ordinates or is measured by *n***<sup>0</sup>** = q **1** + *Ed E***0** . The oscillator energy *E<sup>o</sup>* is a "average" energy gap that, to a reasonable degree, is experimentally related with the lowest direct band gap [57]. As shown in Table 2, the overall image gained is consistent with the fact that refractive index and energy gap are inversely proportional. Plotting *1/(n*2*−1)* against *(hυ)2* yields the values of (*Ed*) and (*Eo*) from the slope and intercept of the linear fitted lines, as shown in Figure 9. Table 2 shows the *Eo* and *Ed* values that were calculated. The single oscillator energy (*Eo*) declines as the % (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex increases, whereas the dispersion energy (*Ed*) rises. The static refractive index at zero energy *no* is measured from the linear part extrapolation of Figure 9 to intersect the ordinates or is measured by = ට1 + ா ாబ . The oscillator energy *Eo* is a "average" energy gap that, to a reasonable degree, is experimentally related with the lowest direct band gap [57]. As shown in Table 2, the overall image gained is consistent with the fact that refractive index and energy gap are inversely proportional.

**Figure 9**. 1/(n2−1)against *(hυ)2* for PVA and loaded films. **Figure 9.** 1/(n<sup>2</sup> <sup>−</sup> 1)against (*hυ*) 2 for PVA and loaded films.

**Table 2.** *Eo* and *Ed* for the PVA and loaded films.

*3.7. Complex Dielectric Function Study* 

and (*n*) [58]:

**Sample** *Ed Eo no* PVSN0 1.49 6.74 1.221 PVSN1 0.57 2.22 1.256 PVSN2 0.46 1.98 1.232

PC materials are one of the most reliable ways for modifying the dielectric constant (*εr*) value of polymers. Several methods are now being used to improve the *εr* of polymers, which can then be used in photonic or optoelectronic device applications. As demonstrated below, the *εr* is approved in a connection that includes both values of (*k*)


**Table 2.** *E<sup>o</sup>* and *E<sup>d</sup>* for the PVA and loaded films.

#### *3.7. Complex Dielectric Function Study*

PC materials are one of the most reliable ways for modifying the dielectric constant (*εr*) value of polymers. Several methods are now being used to improve the *ε<sup>r</sup>* of polymers, which can then be used in photonic or optoelectronic device applications. As demonstrated below, the *ε<sup>r</sup>* is approved in a connection that includes both values of (*k*) and (*n*) [58]: *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

$$
\varepsilon\_t = n^2 - k^2 \tag{6}
$$

Figure 10 shows the *ε<sup>r</sup>* spectra against wavelength for PVA and PC samples. It is clear that, when the % (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes rises, the values of *ε<sup>r</sup>* rise as well. This is associated with the production of density of states inside the polymers, which is forbidden gap [58]. Figure 10 shows the *εr* spectra against wavelength for PVA and PC samples. It is clear that, when the % (*v*/*v*) of Sn2+-PPHs metal complexes rises, the values of *εr* rise as well. This is associated with the production of density of states inside the polymers, which is forbidden gap [58].

**Figure 10.** Dielectric constant versus wavelength for PVA and loaded films. **Figure 10.** Dielectric constant versus wavelength for PVA and loaded films.

It is seen that the fundamental optical transition in PCs is caused by changes in the *εr*. The response of this feature is reflected in the real (*ԑr*) and imaginary (*ԑi*) regions of the spectra. Contrastingly, the actual part determines a material's ability to reduce the speed of an e.m.r wave. The imaginary part, on the other hand, indicates the level of energy It is seen that the fundamental optical transition in PCs is caused by changes in the *εr* . The response of this feature is reflected in the real (*εr*) and imaginary (*ε<sup>i</sup>* ) regions of the spectra. Contrastingly, the actual part determines a material's ability to reduce the speed of an e.m.r wave. The imaginary part, on the other hand, indicates the level of energy absorption efficiency by materials as a result of polarization.

absorption efficiency by materials as a result of polarization. *Εr* is wavelength dependent. As seen in Figure 10, dielectric constant is high at the low wavelength, while it has a low value at the long wavelength as more photons are absorbed at the low wavelength. Conducting polymers are expensive in comparison with *Er* is wavelength dependent. As seen in Figure 10, dielectric constant is high at the low wavelength, while it has a low value at the long wavelength as more photons are absorbed at the low wavelength. Conducting polymers are expensive in comparison with the insulating polymers. In this research, Sn2+-complexes were added to the PVA polymer

The *n* and wavelength connection, which is on the basis of the Spitzer–Fan model, can be used to specify the dielectric response (*ԑ∞*) of a substance at high frequency (i.e.,

> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> ) ( ) <sup>4</sup> (

ε

π 2

λ

*m N*

2 2 \*

*o <sup>r</sup>* = − = <sup>∞</sup> − × (7)

ε

2

*C e*

the insulating polymers. In this research, Sn2+-complexes were added to the PVA polymer to increase the dielectric constant, as the Sn2+-complex has more functional groups to in-

*n k*

cause an increase in the value of the dielectric constant.

ε

short wavelength) [59]:

to increase the dielectric constant, as the Sn2+-complex has more functional groups to interact with the PVA polymer for increasing the dielectric constant and decreasing the *Eg*. In addition to that Sn2+-complexes create trap energy states within the band gap that cause an increase in the value of the dielectric constant.

The *n* and wavelength connection, which is on the basis of the Spitzer–Fan model, can be used to specify the dielectric response (*ε***∞**) of a substance at high frequency (i.e., short wavelength) [59]: *Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

$$
\varepsilon\_r = n^2 - k^2 = \varepsilon\_\ominus - (\frac{e^2}{4\pi^2 C^2 \varepsilon\_o}) \times (\frac{N}{m^\*})\lambda^2 \tag{7}
$$

where *ε<sup>o</sup>* means the free space dielectric constant, *N* denotes the number of charge carrier, *m\** signifies the effective mass, which is presumed to be 1.16 me, and *c* and *e* have their normal definitions [60]. *m\** signifies the effective mass, which is presumed to be 1.16 me, and *c* and *e* have their normal definitions [60]. In the visible wavelength area, the relationship between the values of ԑr against λ2 is

In the visible wavelength area, the relationship between the values of *ε*<sup>r</sup> against λ 2 is a straight line, as seen in Figure 11. Using the parameters in Table 3, one may calculate the *ε***<sup>∞</sup>** and *N/m\** from the intercept and slope of the line with the vertical axis, correspondingly. Equation (7) can be used to approximate the *N/m\**, *ε***<sup>∞</sup>** and N, as shown in Table 4. a straight line, as seen in Figure 11. Using the parameters in Table 3, one may calculate the ԑ*<sup>∞</sup>* and *N/m\** from the intercept and slope of the line with the vertical axis, correspondingly. Equation (7) can be used to approximate the *N/m\**, ԑ∞ and N, as shown in Table 4.

**Figure 11.** Shows the relationship of ԑr versus λ2 for pure PVA and doped films. **Figure 11.** Shows the relationship of *ε*r versus λ 2 for pure PVA and doped films.

**Table 3.** The physical quantities used to determine *N/m\** for PVA loaded Sn2+ metal complex. **Table 3.** The physical quantities used to determine *N/m\** for PVA loaded Sn2+ metal complex.


**Film Code** *N/m\** **× 1055 (m−3/kg) ԑ<sup>∞</sup>** PVSN0 3.65 1.346 PVSN1 10.94 1.486 PVSN2 13.38 1.489

riers/m\* of the parent PVA film increases, from 3.65 × 1055 to 13.38 × 1055 m−3 Kg−1 and the

preted as indicative of a rise in the number of free charge carrier involved in the polarization mechanism. The calculated *N/m\** in this research are in good agreement with those

and the ԑ<sup>∞</sup> is inter-

documented in the previous reports by Equation (7) [61].

ԑ<sup>∞</sup> increases from 1.346 to 1.489. These increases in charge carriers/m\*


**Table 4.** Presents the values of *N/m\** and *ε***<sup>∞</sup>** for PVA loadedSn2+-complex.

Table 4 shows that as the volume of the metal complexes increases, the charge carriers/m\* of the parent PVA film increases, from 3.65 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>55</sup> to 13.38 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>55</sup> <sup>m</sup>−<sup>3</sup> Kg−<sup>1</sup> and the *ε***<sup>∞</sup>** increases from 1.346 to 1.489. These increases in charge carriers/m\* and the *ε***<sup>∞</sup>** is interpreted as indicative of a rise in the number of free charge carrier involved in the polarization mechanism. The calculated *N/m\** in this research are in good agreement with those documented in the previous reports by Equation (7) [61].

#### *3.8. Band Gap Study*

The clarification of atomic spectra particularly that of the simplest atom, hydrogen, was the first significant achievement of quantum theory. Quantum physics offered a vital concept: atoms could only immerse well-defined energy levels, and these energy states were exceedingly sharp for solitary atoms. Atoms cannot be seen as separate units in a crystalline solid because they are chemically connected to their nearest neighbor since they are in close proximity to one another. The nature of the chemical bond indicates that electrons on close adjacent atoms can exchange with one another, creating the spreading of discrete atomic energy states into energy 'bands' in the solid [62]. When considering a solid, it must take into account the contributions of numerous electronic energy band processes to the optical characteristics. Intraband (IBD) processes, for example, correspond to electronic conduction by free charge carriers and are more relevant in conducting materials such as semimetals, metals, and degenerate semiconductors. The classical Drude theory, or the Boltzmann equation, or the quantum mechanical density matrix method, can explain these IBD phenomena in their most basic terms [63]. Solid-state materials' optical properties are useful for analyzing magnetic excitations, lattice vibrations, energy band structure, localized defects, impurity levels, and excitons. An electron is excited from a full valence band state to an empty conduction band state by a photon. An IBD transition is a quantum mechanical phenomenon [63]. Because of their scientific value and prospective application in energy conversion and harvesting, essential understanding of the charge separation and transfer procedures elaborate in photovoltaic systems is an exciting study topic that is gathering more and more attention [64]. The optical *E<sup>g</sup>* is the most essential property of organic and inorganic materials (*Eg*)

Tauc's model [65] was used to calculate the energy band gap of the films.

$$(\mathfrak{a}hv) = \mathfrak{B}(hv - E\_{\mathfrak{g}})^\gamma \tag{8}$$

where *B* is a transition probability factor that is constant through the visible frequency ranges, and the index is utilized to measure the kind of electronic transition and takes 1/2 or 3/2 for direct transitions, while it is equal to 2 or 3 for indirect transitions, based on whether they are permitted or prohibited [66]. The plot of (*αhυ*) 1/<sup>γ</sup> against (*hυ*) for pure PVA and doped films is shown in Figures 12–15.

When the Sn2+-PPHs was added to the PVA polymer, the optical energy bandgap decreased noticeably, as the Sn2+-PPHs are enriched with more functional groups to interact with the functional groups of PVA. Thus, the optical energy bandgap is noticeably decreased. For example, when 15 wt.% Sn2+-PPHs metal complex was added to pure PVA, the BGP reduced. For 30% (*v*/*v*) of inserted Sn2+-PPHs metal complex, a considerable modification in the energy band gap may be attained, lowering the BGP of PVA solid films to 1.8 eV. From the interception of the extrapolated linear component of the (*αhυ*) 1/<sup>γ</sup> on the photon energy axis, the optical energy band gap for all solid films was obtained (abscissa). Table 5

lists the optical BGP values. In insulator materials, the *E<sup>g</sup>* is too big that no free carriers can thermally excite over it at room temperature. This means there is not any carrier absorption. IBD transitions seem to be essential only at rather high photon energy, as a result (above the visible). Many insulator materials are optically transparent as a result of this. The findings show that PCs with low bandgap energies (1–2 eV) may be made, which has piqued scientists' attention because to their potential applications in visible and infrared detectors, optical parametric oscillators, up converters, and solar cells [67]. γ (α υ) ( υ ) *h* = *B h* −*Eg* (8) where *B* is a transition probability factor that is constant through the visible frequency ranges, and the index is utilized to measure the kind of electronic transition and takes 1/2 or 3/2 for direct transitions, while it is equal to 2 or 3 for indirect transitions, based on whether they are permitted or prohibited [66]. The plot of (*αhυ*)1/<sup>γ</sup> against (*hυ*) for pure PVA and doped films is shown in Figures 12–15.

The clarification of atomic spectra particularly that of the simplest atom, hydrogen, was the first significant achievement of quantum theory. Quantum physics offered a vital concept: atoms could only immerse well-defined energy levels, and these energy states were exceedingly sharp for solitary atoms. Atoms cannot be seen as separate units in a crystalline solid because they are chemically connected to their nearest neighbor since they are in close proximity to one another. The nature of the chemical bond indicates that electrons on close adjacent atoms can exchange with one another, creating the spreading of discrete atomic energy states into energy 'bands' in the solid [62]. When considering a solid, it must take into account the contributions of numerous electronic energy band processes to the optical characteristics. Intraband (IBD) processes, for example, correspond to electronic conduction by free charge carriers and are more relevant in conducting materials such as semimetals, metals, and degenerate semiconductors. The classical Drude theory, or the Boltzmann equation, or the quantum mechanical density matrix method, can explain these IBD phenomena in their most basic terms [63]. Solid-state materials' optical properties are useful for analyzing magnetic excitations, lattice vibrations, energy band structure, localized defects, impurity levels, and excitons. An electron is excited from a full valence band state to an empty conduction band state by a photon. An IBD transition is a quantum mechanical phenomenon [63]. Because of their scientific value and prospective application in energy conversion and harvesting, essential understanding of the charge separation and transfer procedures elaborate in photovoltaic systems is an exciting study topic that is gathering more and more attention [64]. The optical *Eg* is the most essential property of organic and inorganic materials (*Eg*). Tauc's model [65]

was used to calculate the energy band gap of the films.

*Molecules* **2022**, *27*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

*3.8. Band Gap Study* 

**Figure 12.** Plot of (*αhυ*)2 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films. **Figure 12.** Plot of (*αhυ*) <sup>2</sup> vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

**Figure 13.** Plot of (*αhυ*)2/3 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films. **Figure 13.** Plot of (*αhυ*) 2/3 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

**Figure 14.** Plot of (*αhυ*)1/2 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.6 5 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.6 *Energy, hv (eV)*

0

2

4

6

8

10

(αhv)1/2 (eV/cm)1/2

12

14

16

18

PVSN0 PVSN1 PVSN2

**Figure 13.** Plot of (*αhυ*)2/3 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.6 5 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.6 *Energy, hv (eV)*

0

10

20

30

(αhv)2/3 (eV/cm)2/3

40

50

60

PVSN0 PVSN1 PVSN2

**Figure 14.** Plot of (*αhυ*)1/2 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films. **Figure 14.** Plot of (*αhυ*) 1/2 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

**Figure 15.** Plot of (*αhυ*)1/3 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films. **Figure 15.** Plot of (*αhυ*) 1/3 vs. *hυ* for pure PVA and PC films.

When the Sn2+-PPHs was added to the PVA polymer, the optical energy bandgap **Table 5.** Opticalbandgap from Tauc'smodel and dielectric loss plot.


films to 1.8 eV. From the interception of the extrapolated linear component of the (*αhυ*)1/<sup>γ</sup> on the photon energy axis, the optical energy band gap for all solid films was obtained (abscissa). Table 5 lists the optical BGP values. In insulator materials, the *Eg* is too big that

energy, as a result (above the visible). Many insulator materials are optically transparent as a result of this. The findings show that PCs with low bandgap energies (1–2 eV) may be made, which has piqued scientists' attention because to their potential applications in visible and infrared detectors, optical parametric oscillators, up converters, and solar

**Sample Code γ = 1/2 γ = 3/2 γ = 2 γ = 3** *E***g From ԑi**  PVSN0 6.4 6.19 6.08 6 6.4 PVSN1 2.74 2 1.82 1.6 2.1 PVSN2 2.3 1.78 1.6 1.56 1.8

The complex dielectric function, which is connected with other optical characteristics (i.e., *n*, reflectivity, and absorption coefficient) by simple equations, is the best way to characterize the optical properties of solids [68]. Electronic transition and charge transport complexes in semiconducting/conducting polymers are not studied well. The transitions are made possible by the incident photon and phonon giving sufficient energy and momentum [69]. Tauc's model and optical dielectric loss have already been shown to be active in determining the *E*g and electronic transition types, respectively. This is due to

**Table 5.** Opticalbandgap from Tauc'smodel and dielectric loss plot.

cells [67].

The complex dielectric function, which is connected with other optical characteristics (i.e., *n*, reflectivity, and absorption coefficient) by simple equations, is the best way to characterize the optical properties of solids [68]. Electronic transition and charge transport complexes in semiconducting/conducting polymers are not studied well. The transitions are made possible by the incident photon and phonon giving sufficient energy and momentum [69]. Tauc's model and optical dielectric loss have already been shown to be active in determining the *E<sup>g</sup>* and electronic transition types, respectively. This is due to the optical dielectric function is mostly independent of the materials band structure. Simultaneously, study of optical dielectric function utilizing UV–vis spectroscopy have proven to be relatively valued in foreseeing the materials band structure [10,25]. Aside from IBD (free carrier) activities, interband processes occur when electrons in a filled level below the Fermi state absorbs electromagnetic radiation, causing a transition to the unfilled level in a higher band. This IBD process is fundamentally a quantum mechanics method that is explained using quantum mechanical terminology [63].

The *ε<sup>i</sup>* can be determined experimentally from the given *n* and *k* data using the following relationships,

$$
\varepsilon\_2 = 2 \text{ } n \text{ } k \tag{9}
$$

The refractive index is *n*, while the extinction coefficient is *k*. Previous research has shown that the peaks in the *ε<sup>i</sup>* spectra are linked to the interband transitions [34–36]. The real *E<sup>g</sup>* can thus be calculated by taking the intersection of linear sections of *ε<sup>i</sup>* spectrawith the *hυ* axis (see Figure 16). This is because the optical dielectric function is intimately linked to the photon–electron interaction and relates the physical process of IBD transition through the structure of electronic materials. The dielectric function's imaginary part(*ε<sup>i</sup>* ) primarily describes the electron transition from filled to unfilled levels [70]. Former work documented that studying the *ε<sup>i</sup>* allowed for a detailed understanding of the optical transition mechanism [71]. An electron is excited by a photon from a valence band occupied state to a conduction band unoccupied state. This is referred as IBD transitions. A photon is absorbed in this method, which results in the formation of a hole and an excited electronic level. Quantum mechanics governs this process [63]. The optical dielectric loss is significantly connected to the filled and unfilled electronic levels within a solid from a quantum mechanics (microscopic) standpoint. The peak in the imaginary component of the dielectric function correlates to strong IBD transitions, which is well documented microscopically (quantum mechanically) [70]. The study of the complex dielectric function (*ε*\* = *ε<sup>r</sup>* − *iε<sup>i</sup>* ), which defines the material linear response to e.m.r, will help you better comprehend the optical properties of a solid. The imaginary component *ε<sup>i</sup>* represents the material's optical absorption, which is tightly linked to the valence (filled) and conduction (unfilled) bands, and is given by [18]:

$$\varepsilon\_{2}(\omega) = \frac{2e^{2}\pi}{\Omega\varepsilon\_{0}} \sum\_{\mathbf{K},\mathbf{V},\mathbf{C}} \left| \psi\_{\mathbf{K}}^{\mathbb{C}} \right| \overrightarrow{\mathbf{U}} \cdot \overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{r}} \left| \psi\_{\mathbf{K}}^{\mathbb{V}} \right|^{2} \delta \left( \mathbf{E}\_{\mathbf{K}}^{\mathbb{C}} - \mathbf{E}\_{\mathbf{K}}^{\mathbb{V}} - \hbar\omega \right) \tag{10}$$

where *ω*, **Ω**, *e*, *εo*, <sup>→</sup>*r* and <sup>→</sup>*u* are the incident photon frequency, crystal volume, electron charge, free space permittivity, position vector, and a vector determined by the incident e.m.r. wave polarization, respectively. *ψ<sup>c</sup> k* and *ψ<sup>v</sup> k* are the conduction band wave function and valence band wave function, respectively, at k. The optical dielectric constant is characterized by a complex function of frequency based on theoretical models, which necessitates a large-scale computer effort to calculate [71,72]. By comparing the *ε* 0 0 of Figure 16 to those extracted from Tauc's method, the types of electronic transition is recognized (Figures 12–15). It is feasible to determine that the kind of electronic transition in pure PVA and PC samples is direct allowed (γ = 1/2) and direct forbidden (γ = 3/2) transitions, respectively. Table 5 summarizes the band gap calculated using optical dielectric loss and the Tauc technique for more clarity.

**Figure 16.** Plot of *ԑ<sup>i</sup>* vs. *hυ* for PVA and PC films. **Figure 16.** Plot of *ε<sup>i</sup>* vs. *hυ* for PVA and PC films.

#### **4. Conclusions**

**4. Conclusions**  In conclusion, the PVA films doped with Sn2+-PPHs metal complex were synthesized with low optical energy band gaps by solution casting procedure. The FTIR showed that the BT contained sufficient PPHs and functional groups to fabricate Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The UV-vis and FTIR methods confirmed the formation of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The UV-visible method showed the effect of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex on the optical property of PVA. Furthermore, XRD and FTIR analyses showed the formation of complexation between PVA and Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The improvement of the amorphous structure is reflected in the broadness and decrease in the XRD intensity. The shifts and decreases in the intensity of the FTIR peaks of the composite films established the interaction between Sn2+-PPHs metal complex and PVA. The absorption edge shifted to lower *hυ* by increasing the load of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The refractive index and dielectric constant tuned by loading of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex to PVA. The *Eo*, *Ed* and *no* were calculated for the films. The dielectric constant versus photon wavelength were studied to measure *N*/*m\** and high frequency dielectric constant. Tauc's model was used to measure the type of electronic transition in the films. To estimate the energy gap, the dielectric loss parameter was analyzed. Because of the low optical band gap of the In conclusion, the PVA films doped with Sn2+-PPHs metal complex were synthesized with low optical energy band gaps by solution casting procedure. The FTIR showed that the BT contained sufficient PPHs and functional groups to fabricate Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The UV-vis and FTIR methods confirmed the formation of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The UV-visible method showed the effect of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex on the optical property of PVA. Furthermore, XRD and FTIR analyses showed the formation of complexation between PVA and Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The improvement of the amorphous structure is reflected in the broadness and decrease in the XRD intensity. The shifts and decreases in the intensity of the FTIR peaks of the composite films established the interaction between Sn2+-PPHs metal complex and PVA. The absorption edge shifted to lower *hυ* by increasing the load of the Sn2+-PPHs metal complex. The refractive index and dielectric constant tuned by loading of Sn2+-PPHs metal complex to PVA. The *Eo*, *E<sup>d</sup>* and *n<sup>o</sup>* were calculated for the films. The dielectric constant versus photon wavelength were studied to measure *N*/*m\** and high frequency dielectric constant. Tauc's model was used to measure the type of electronic transition in the films. To estimate the energy gap, the dielectric loss parameter was analyzed. Because of the low optical band gap of the films, these films have good potential for optoelectronic device applications.

films, these films have good potential for optoelectronic device applications. **Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, S.B.A. and A.M.H.; Formal analysis, M.A.B. and S.A.H.; Funding acquisition, M.M.N. and S.I.A.-S.; Investigation, S.A.H.; Methodology, M.A.B. and K.K.A.; Project administration, S.B.A., M.M.N. and E.M.A.D.; Validation, M.M.N., N.M.S., E.M.A.D., K.K.A., S.I.A.-S. and A.M.H.; Writing–original draft, S.B.A.; Writing–review and editing, M.M.N., M.A.B., N.M.S., E.M.A.D., S.I.A.-S., S.A.H. and A.M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the **Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, S.B.A. and A.M.H.; Formal analysis, M.A.B. and S.A.H.; Funding acquisition, M.M.N. and S.I.A.-S.; Investigation, S.A.H.; Methodology, M.A.B. and K.K.A.; Project administration, S.B.A., M.M.N. and E.M.A.D.; Validation, M.M.N., N.M.S., E.M.A.D., K.K.A., S.I.A.-S. and A.M.H.; Writing–original draft, S.B.A.; Writing–review and editing, M.M.N., M.A.B., N.M.S., E.M.A.D., S.I.A.-S., S.A.H. and A.M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

published version of the manuscript. **Funding:** We would like to acknowledge all support for this work by the University of Sulaimani, Prince Sultan University and Komar University of Science and Technology. The authors express their gratitude to the support of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2022R58), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Prince Sultan Uni-**Funding:** We would like to acknowledge all support for this work by the University of Sulaimani, Prince Sultan University and Komar University of Science and Technology. The authors express their gratitude to the support of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2022R58), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Prince Sultan University for paying the Article Processing Charges (APC) of this publication and for their financial support.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
