**4. Conclusions**

The current research was conducted in Jhelum District, Punjab (Pakistan), to determine the impact of climatic variations and LULC changes. The livelihood of the farmers in the study area is entirely dependent on agriculture and linked with normal temperatures and rainfall. However, fluctuations in the normal temperature resulted in a shortage of rains, an increase in drought events, and a decrease in water availability for irrigation, hence directly affecting the agrarian community and farming inventions. The increasing temperature and reduced water availability for irrigation due to less rainfall are considered as serious concerns in the study area. Growers are conscious about the climatic fluctuations and familiarize themselves with approaches to manage the impacts but need governmen<sup>t</sup> support. The outcomes show that the vegetation section contributes an extra grounded constructive link with the NDVI for all the levels, as open area and built-up land negatively associated with LULC and the NDVI during the last 30 years. On average, NDBI and NDVI standards were recorded between 0.37 and 0.12, and 0.04 and 0.27, from 1990 to 2020, respectively, whereas average producer and user accuracies were 83.2% and 88.8% for 1990, 88.1% and 85.7% for 2000, 86.5% and 86.7% for 2010, and 85.6% and 87.3% for 2020. Accordingly, the "Kappa coefficients" for 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 were 0.86, 0.82, 0.89, and 0.85, respectively, in the study area. "Barren land" in 1990 occupied the class with 31.79%, but in 2020, it decreased (25.65%) compared to 1990. The outcome indicates that the bare land transformed into housing areas and roads. Water covered 9.61% in 1990, but it remarkably reduced (5.52%) in 2020 compared to 1990 in Jhelum District.

It is concluded that LULC changes are significant for a comprehensive series of uses, comprising temperature, soil destruction, and land planning events. There were main variations in barren land, water channels, and vegetative areas across the studied temporal gradient due to the increasing human influence in acquiring arable lands. The research outcome shows the main observational base for regular inspections of variations in land supervision and will prove helpful for policy makers to improve strategies to manage land capitals efficiently.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization: M.M., A.T., M.M.A. and A.M.K.; methodology: M.M., S.H., F.M., A.T., A.M.K., G.R. and M.M.A.; data curation: M.M., M.F., A.Z., M.A., S.A., A.T., M.W., K.F. and M.F.; validation: A.T., A.M.K. and F.M.; formal analysis: A.T., M.M., S.S. and S.H.; investigation: M.M. and A.M.K.; project administration: A.T., M.M.A., A.M.K. and L.Z.; resources: M.M., A.T., F.A. and L.Z.; software: A.T., M.M., A.Z., M.A., S.A., M.W. and K.F.; visualization: A.T., L.Z., M.F. and G.R.; writing—original draft preparation: A.T., M.M. and A.M.K.; writing—review and editing: A.T., M.M.A. and G.R.; supervision: M.M.A., A.M.K., A.T. and F.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 41907192) and the Civil aerospace pre-research project (D040102).

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the first or corresponding authors.

**Acknowledgments:** This is part of the PhD research work of the first author. We are thankful to all the study participants who generously shared their perceptions about the climatic variations and their impacts in the study area.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
