*2.1. Running Case*

We introduce an example running case of the M2X Economy in order to provide the reader with a better understanding as well as the scope of M2X applications. The selected running case is illustrated in Figure 1 and belongs to the sub-set of vehicle-focused M2X applications, i.e., the vehicle-to-everything (V2X).

In the future, people might not possess vehicles any more. Instead, vehicles may own themselves, or they are owned by the government, or private corporations [1]. We assume that Alice requests a self-driving car (TaaS) to go from Point *A* to *B* and several route options exist for this. Figure 1 indicates that the fastest route option is expensive but also the most comfortable and equipped with toll gates. Alternatively, the less comfortable, cheaper option is via Point *C* and includes traffic lights and traffic congestion. Alice may select her preferred option depending on her price range and on the urgency of reaching Point *B*. Furthermore, we assume that the self-driving cars are able to communicate with each other as well as the traffic lights (infrastructure). It is also possible to buy a green-light phase for a faster commute to Point *B*. Finally, Figure 1 shows an electric charging station near Point *B* that the self-driving cars may use for some amount of fee. In the described running case, assuming that time and money are important factors, Alice may select from a range of possible options. On the one hand, she may choose the fastest and most expensive route to Point *B*, or take the less comfortable and cheaper option via Point *C*. Additionally, she can pay an extra fee and her car may negotiate for a green light at the traffic signals.

**Figure 1.** Self-driving M2X running case incorporating smart traffic lights and a traffic-congestion response, adapted from [1].

Our running case—despite it simplicity—already covers a wide variety of M2X service enactments, i.e., TaaS, toll gate payments, battery electric vehicle (BEV) charging, road space negotiations, smart parking, and traffic information provision. Nevertheless, they also only constitute a small subset of services within the M2X ecosystem.

### *2.2. State of the Art and Related Work*

The idea of the M2X Economy and its ecosystem overlaps with some closely related concepts and applications such as cybernetics, WSNs, CPS, and IoT [1]. This section clarifies the differences and overlaps with those concepts and applications.

Wiener [9] defines the concept of cybernetics as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine", while WSNs consist of spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions and to cooperatively pass their data through a variety of networks to a main location [10].

CPS are engineered systems that are built from, and depend upon, the seamless integration of computation and physical components. CPS tightly integrate computing devices, actuation, and control, networking infrastructure, and sensing of the physical world [11].

Gubbi et al. [12] defines IoT as an "interconnection of sensing and actuating devices providing the ability to share information across platforms through a unified framework, developing a common operating picture for enabling innovative applications. This is achieved by seamless, large-scale sensing, data analytic and information representation using cutting edge ubiquitous sensing and cloud computing".

Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is regarded as one of the most advanced technologies in the area of computers science, electronic and communications, mechanical engineering, and information technology [13]. With software robots autonomously executing their choreography uninterruptedly, quickly, and flawlessly while at the same time being easy to implement at relatively low costs compared to traditional process automation, RPA may automate processes enabling business transactions in the near future [14].

After clarifying the terms and concepts above, the question remains: Where does the M2X Economy fit in? Several publications list and survey CPS and IoT applications, e.g., [15–19]), as well as their economic value and impact, e.g., [19–21]. However, the emerging economy resulting from M2X enactments among humans, smart devices, software agents and physical systems is rarely considered.

### *2.3. Elements and Definition of the M2X Economy*

The M2X Economy framework involves autonomous smart devices and further encompasses mobile devices, software agents, humans, and infrastructure in M2M, M2H, and M2I scenarios. A main requirement of such an ecosystem is to enable a seamless integration of humans and smart devices into a well functioning socio-technical system that puts the M2X concept in a human-centered context [1]. When considering collaborations and interactions between the M2X stakeholders, multilevel and unidirectional interrelations can be seen. The interleaved on-demand collaborations, interactions and transactions among autonomous, heterogeneous and highly dynamic entities (humans, machines, software agents, etc.) lead to decentralized and distributed socio-technical systems comprising a large number of micro-services of different vendors and solutions, as well as infrastructure providers [1].

**Definition 1.** *Thus, the M2X Economy is the result of interactions, transactions, collaborations and business enactments among humans, autonomous and cooperative smart devices, software agents, and physical systems. The corresponding ecosystem is formed by automated, globallyavailable, heterogeneous socio-technical e-governance systems with loosely coupled, P2P-resembling network structures and is characterized by its dynamic, continuously changing, interoperable, open and distributed nature. Thereby, the M2X Economy employs concepts such as cyber-physical systems, the Internet of Things, and wireless sensor networks.*
