**4. Discussion**

A model was proposed to evaluate the role of self-efficacy, recreation specialization, and flow experience in long-distance runners' life satisfaction. This study extended the extant literature in two ways: by examining the predictors of flow experience and life satisfaction and investigating the influential paths of life satisfaction by introducing flow experience as a mediating variable. The results of mediation analysis using JASP 0.16 supported all seven hypotheses proposed in this study.

Consistent with previous studies [36,38], we found that runners' self-efficacy significantly predicted flow experience. As suggested in recent research, flow experiences were reported more often by those who also reported building-up momentum and confidence in their performance [48]. Self-efficacy was a stronger predictor of how effectively an individual can perform a specific task than either his/her self-confidence or self-esteem [49]. Usually, higher levels of self-efficacy contribute to people persisting and finding ways to improve their performance by collecting important information, making appropriate decisions, and taking actions at the right time.

Our results support the findings from previous studies [34,35] that indicate that runners with higher degrees of recreation specialization report stronger flow experiences. The results also confirm Cheng et al.'s [34] findings of a positive relationship between recreation specialization and flow experience and no relationship with the affect dimension. Contrary to the results of this research, Wöran and Arnberger [50] found that mountain hikers' specialization was negatively associated with their flow experience index. As suggested by Engeser and Rheinberg [42], there is not always a prerequisite for flow experience, which may be related to a balance between an individual's skill level and how challenging is the activity. Thus, flow experience is still possible when the difficulty of activity is lower than the individual's level of skill [50].

The results of this study support earlier findings of other investigators [28–30] who found that flow experience positively predicts life satisfaction. In a qualitative investigation [51], participants reported many positive outcomes after engaging in rewarding physical activities, including the building of confidence and the experiencing of optimal arousal, self-recovery, and intrinsic motivation. Earlier cross-sectional research found that flow intensity had a significant and positive relationship with Tai Chi participants' view of life as worth living (a variable similar to wellbeing in Japanese culture) [52]. Our results also sugges<sup>t</sup> self-efficacy significantly contributes to runners' life satisfaction. A high degree of self-efficacy contributes to perseverance and to feeling positive and energetic [21,22], all of which are important to leading a healthy and satisfying life [23,24,53]. More importantly, our results extend earlier work by finding that flow experience had an indirect effect on the relationship between self-efficacy and life satisfaction. In other words, the results sugges<sup>t</sup> the possibility that a runner's self-efficacy directly influences the intensity of flow experience, and indirectly contributes to improving life satisfaction.

The findings of this study bring forth several implications. From a theoretical perspective, the findings extend the cognition of flow theory by confirming the positive influence of self-efficacy and recreation specialization on flow experience. In addition, this study contributes to the extant literature by exploring the predictors of life satisfaction and provides an insight into the relationships among runners' self-efficacy, recreation specialization, flow experience, and life satisfaction. Higher levels of self-efficacy and recreation specialization contribute to an individual's flow experience and life satisfaction. From an applied perspective, these findings sugges<sup>t</sup> that strategies should be developed to improve self-efficacy, for people to engage in rewarding physical activities and become specialized in performing activities so they are more likely to experience flow states, and these, in turn, may help improve people's life satisfaction. Broader societal efforts are needed to create a more encouraging exercise atmosphere and provide comprehensive sports facilities. At the individual level, people should choose activities of optimal difficulty levels and use strategies to resolve constraints that block their participation in recreational activities.

Although several implications were discussed above, several limitations are to be kept in mind. First, the data in this study were collected through a web-based questionnaire platform. Those who were not proficient in using smartphones or computers may have been excluded from participation in this study. A more effective data collection strategy should be used in future studies. Second, the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the runners' daily routines, including engaging in daily exercise and participation in running events. The study needs to be replicated after the COVID-19 pandemic is over or at least significantly abates. Third, other variables, not included in the study, such as social support and psychological commitment, may be included to examine their path effects in a more comprehensive model. Fourth, age differences in self-efficacy and flow experience were not examined in this study as possible moderators of life satisfaction. A future study could include age as a moderating variable.
