*3.2. Slope*

Slope defines the extent to which groundwater can be recharged with the precipitated water [100]. The regions with higher slopes experience rapid water running over the surface, hindering the absorption of precipitated water into the groundwater [65]. Conversely, in areas involving lower slopes and vegetation, the water cannot run off the surface rapidly, and thus, more of it is absorbed in between the pores and adds to the groundwater table [100]. In relevant studies, it has been established that the topographical feature of the slope impacts the directional flow of water and indicates its accumulation. Further, the

flat surfaces with gentle slopes displayed the highest infiltration capacity [109,111], thus contributing to an increase in the groundwater table. Our study area, Islamabad, comprises high-slope areas, as the northern outskirt is predominant with the mountain region, making the slope one of the important factors for the current study. Accordingly, the slope has been included as one of the key factors in this study.
