3.4.1. Nature of Guidance

High-quality instruction, practice, and feedback are essential factors for the development of FMS proficiency in children and adolescents [2]. While unstructured, minimally supervised "free play" interventions do appear to lead to improvements in FMS (e.g., [46,89,90]), these improvements are less than those observed in peer groups that receive additional guidance. While some form of additional guidance can enhance learning, this quality instruction may be delivered in different ways [2,91]. For example, direct instruction is where a movement solution is prescribed for the learner by the practitioner. This prescription may be provided in the form of demonstrations, cue words, and/or targeted feedback, all of which is designed to help a child modify their action towards a more proficient pattern (e.g., [74,75]). In contrast, indirect instruction refers to manipulations of the task, equipment, or playing space to elicit behavioural responses from the learner (e.g., [92,93]). For example, instructions to throw "as far as you can" or the use of distant targets may be used to encourage a stepping action and additional trunk rotation within the overarm throw. Importantly, effective indirect instruction does not force a learner towards a single, specific solution, but rather encourages the exploration of alternative movement solutions [94].

One proposed advantage of indirect instruction is that it encourages a learner to become sensitive to the demands of any movement situation, and to adjust their movement accordingly [72]. However, limited research has directly compared direct and indirect instruction while controlling for other variables [93,95], and this research has produced equivocal findings in relation to movement competence, with direct instruction enhancing the development of certain movement components, and indirect instruction enhancing the development of others. The impact of these differing instructional approaches on broader benefits (e.g., intrinsic motivation, creativity) have not been investigated [96]. In addition, many FMS interventions (e.g., SKIP–[97]) utilise both direct and indirect instruction in combination. Effective teachers and coaches can and do use both direct and indirect instruction, often within the same session [91], with the decision depending upon the aim of the activity, and the specific characteristics of the learner and teacher.
