3.4.2. Learner Autonomy

The ideal FMS session is one which supports children to become proficient movers while also enhancing their motivation to partake in PA [98]. According to self-determination theory [99,100], an autonomy-supporting learning environment enhances motivation. Within the context of FMS development, autonomy refers to viewing learners as individuals who are deserving of understanding and, within appropriate limits, of choosing the direction of their development [101]. In practical terms, an autonomy-supporting environment is one in which learners are provided with a rationale for activities, their feelings are taken into consideration, and they are provided with as much choice and opportunities for independent action as appropriate in the context [101]. While the provision of a rationale for activities and consideration of learner's feelings should be present within all FMS sessions, the instructor should determine the appropriate degree of choice to be provided to learners.

Within low-autonomy FMS sessions, the teacher/coach selects the content, duration, and order of activities to be practiced [74,102]. In contrast, during high-autonomy FMS sessions, the learner has a degree of choice about which activities to engage in, which variations of each skill to engage with (e.g., which target to throw at, which object to throw with), how long to spend on each task, and whether they would like feedback on any particular effort [103,104].

Multiple studies have demonstrated the benefits of incorporating learner autonomy within an FMS intervention (e.g., [104,105]). However, in many studies on learner autonomy, the interventions differ on both the level of autonomy provided and on the nature and/or quantity of the instruction provided. Valentini and Goodway (2004b) found benefits for a high-autonomy group relative to a low-autonomy group in terms of heightened

variable practice conditions, however the group also differed in the use of private rather than public feedback [105]. The most focused test of autonomy was provided by Robinson and Goodway (2009) [40], who provided highly individualised feedback to participants in both a low-autonomy (the teacher made all decisions about what to practice and when based on their professional judgement) and a high-autonomy group (the learner made all decisions); the groups did not differ in relation to improvements in FMS levels. Taken as a whole, these studies suggest that incorporating learner autonomy is beneficial for FMS development (or at least, does not reduce learning), and may have additional motivational benefits. However, the level of autonomy will vary depending upon the aim of the activity, as well as on learner and teacher characteristics [91]. For example, where an instructor has developed children's ability to self-direct their play appropriately, higher levels of autonomy can be provided. Furthermore, within a single session, different levels of autonomy may be deemed appropriate for different activities; for example, low autonomy might be appropriate when the priority is to assess children's performances on a novel activity.
