*3.18. Finding 18*

The strong doctrinal teaching of separateness from society and exclusivity of belonging only to God's kingdom largely explains why Jehovah's Witnesses caught up in the ballot sought no participation with the army. Adherents are significantly over-represented in per capita terms.

Robert Lacars of Blacktown NSW was a minister and bookbinder. He was granted full exemption. He told the magistrate at his court hearing that "as an ambassador of Christ he had immunity from the laws of the country. He was already serving in a spiritual army and could not serve in any other" (Canberra Times 1967, p. 3). Christopher Nelms of Mordialloc, VIC was also granted full exemption on appeal. He told Judge Nelson, "only God can tell me I must go and kill" (Canberra Times 1966, p. 17; Peacemaker 1966c, p. 3).

Richard Pettit was a Jehovah Witness from Corrimal, NSW who lived and worked on the Watchtower Society's Kingdom farm at Ingleburn (Peacemaker 1968a, p. 3; 1968b, p. 3). He informed the magistrate that every night was spent on some religious activity. He was granted exemption from combatant duties only. He appealed and stated to Judge Brennan in the Wollongong District Court 11 March 1968 that "he would go to jail if forced into the army either as a combatant or non-combatant". The judge granted him a full exemption.

Michael Cutrapi and Bill Perry had a different outcome and experience than Robert, Christopher and Richard. They were from New South Wales and their story was told in Peacemaker (Peacemaker 1967b, p. 3; 1967c, p. 3). They could have expected to have received a full exemption from military service given their church's strong neutrality to all war. Instead they were exempted from combatant duties only. They became non-compliers when they refused to obey a call-up for non-combatant duties. They were summoned before the Special Commonwealth Court in Philip Street Sydney. They were then forcibly drafted into the army and sent to1st Recruit Training Battalion at Kapooka. Both men refused to obey any orders, in particular signing for their army issue and putting-on their army uniform. They stated that they refused to obey orders because they were contrary to their Christian beliefs. As a result the army responded with a court martial on 1 March 1967 and sent them to Holsworthy Correctional Facility. Michael and Bill both stated they were placed in solitary confinement on bread and water. The cell contained no furniture and the men were forced to sleep on a concrete floor with just three blankets issued to them. It is unknown what their ultimate fate was.

Again historically over time legal precedents had been established that led magistrates to usually acknowledge the strong doctrinal beliefs of this denomination, which usually resulted in granting full exemption from military service.

#### **4. Conclusions**

Four important aspects should be noted in concluding. First, the influence on a Christian man's conscientious objection was strongest if they were an adherent of a denomination with a strong pacifist tradition or one that viewed secular organisation, like the military, as "ungodly". In respect to the former this is particularly so for the Quakers and Christadelphians, and for the latter the Jehovah's Witnesses. The contrast is stark with the large and dominant denominations of the Church of England and Catholic.

Second, the study confirms the expectation that for Christian conscientious objectors their conscientious beliefs were related to their strict interpretation of the sixth commandment, and in following the example of the non-violent life and teachings of Jesus Christ.

Third, during the Vietnam War years Australians overwhelmingly claimed allegiance to Christianity. The study reveals that for all CODC, about 50% did not identify as Christian. Also Christians were a small proportion of the CNC. There exists a disconnection. Conscientious beliefs grounded in humanist ethical systems were at least as important as Christianity.

Finally, Australian Christian conscientious objectors during the Vietnam War years were individuals who adopted non-violent opposition to war and conscription for it. As A.J. Muste would describe it they engaged in holy disobedience. This is attested by their personal stories just related.

Most complied with the law as it allowed a Christian pacifist the opportunity to convince a magistrate of his sincerity. Nevertheless this was an act of disobedience. It was an act of non-conformity and therefore a challenge to the powerful forces in contemporary Australia. They rejected war violence as a means of achieving societal change. Specifically they rejected killing other human beings viewed as enemies of the state. The rejected military conscription, which was justified by those in power, as being necessary to defend Australia from the godless forces of world communism. They argued if Vietnam fell to communism then Australia would be at risk.

Each of these young Christian men said no to killing other human beings. In doing so they challenged and embarrassed the government and other powerful forces. These young men could also be an embarrassment to their own denomination, especially those that were ambiguous in their teaching about the participation of the Christian in war. A small number adopted conscientious non-compliance with the law which they viewed as unconscionable. They considered that a stronger "holy disobedience" was required to effect societal change. The immediate change or goal was the end of Australia's participation in the Vietnam War and conscription for it.

As the Vietnam War progressed individual Christians together with non-Christian objectors became part of a wider protest and change movement. This wider movement was largely non-violent. No known Christian conscientious objector was involved in violence. This wider movement, especially the role played by religious organisations, requires more research.

Many of the personal stories demonstrate how the powerful forces arrayed against them increasingly adopted more severe sanctions to quell the holy disobedience. As an indication of the success of these non-violent actions the government turned to "facesaving" measures to save it loss of political support, and from having to defend the indefensible. Sanctions were softened or not enforced.

The individual Christian conscientious objectors who have been the subject of this study contributed through their non-violent actions, to the considerable loss of support for the Vietnam War, and conscription for it. This culminated in the defeat of the (Conservative) Coalition Party in December 1972 by the (Democratic Socialist) Labour Party. One of the first acts of the incoming government was to suspend the NSA by administrative fiat, thus ending military conscription. The hope was "for a more peaceful and brotherly world".

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author for academic purposes. The data is not publicly available due to privacy reasons.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.
