*3.3. Finding 3*

Out of the 63,735 conscripts who served in the military, it is safe to speculate that a large number of Christians served and found it compatible with their Christian conscience. This is an important area for future research, which would probably necessitate a large number of personal interviews.

#### *3.4. Finding 4*

Christian CODC were pacifists to all war which is not surprising because s.29A of the NSA only allowed a court to grant exemption from military duties if the applicant could convince the court of his pacifism, whether it be religious or humanist based. What may be surprising is the larger number of persons (208) whose pacifism was not grounded in religion, but in some other ethical system.

Graham Roberts's conscientious beliefs were grounded in Christianity. He was a Quaker from Hobart, Tasmania. His hearing was before Magistrate Bingham 20 April 1966. In his written statement he said, "My conscience does not allow me to take up arms against any person, no matter to what country, class or creed the other may belong. I therefore cannot participate in preparation for war in any way for it is essentially the training of young men to take the lives or cause suffering to their fellow human beings" (Peacemaker 1966a, p. 3). This is a classic exposition of Quaker beliefs.

#### *3.5. Finding 5*

Some Christian pacifists who would have had a strong case in gaining exemption from military service chose instead non-compliance. A common theme in their communications is that making application under the NSA for exemption was seen as tacit approval to the government that it had the moral right to conscript. Non-compliance was seen as a stronger conscientious response. The experience of the Mowbray triplets from Sydney, NSW is a good example.

The triplets David, Graham and Robert, all refused to register for national service during 1967. All were Christians and active in the Methodist Church. As such they had a good chance of gaining full exemption from military service as conscientious objectors. However, they all chose non-compliance. (Peacemaker 1968c, p. 1; 1969a, p. 6; Australian War Memorial 2014). This is evident in a statement made by Robert which was shared by his brothers, "I believe that conscription for military service is immoral. I recognize that I have an opportunity to place my beliefs before a court and gain exemption. However, I do not consider this sufficient. I must reject the right of a government to conscript anyone to kill".

He stated further that, "Christian discipleship challenges me to resist an Act which crushes basic human rights and sends young men off to a war which world opinion condemns. By my own university experience training and the experience gained in everyday life I am seeking to equip myself to give the kind of service to mankind which will promote justice and help remove the causes of war" (Peacemaker 1968c, p. 1; 1969a, p. 7). Graham made a similar statement (Peacemaker 1969d, p. 7).

Robert was sentenced to seven days imprisonment in Long Bay Jail on 24 March 1969 for refusing to undertake a medical examination. His brother, Robert, shared the same fate (Peacemaker 1969b, p. 6). The response of the authorities to David's resistance bordered on the farcical (Peacemaker 1970a, p. 1; 1970c, p. 4; 1970e, p. 7). David described himself as a Christian, pacifist, ecologist, and revolutionary. He was required by the order of the NSW Supreme Court to report to Phillip Street Police Station in Sydney. He with his girlfriend and parents were stopped by media people as they approached the station. David started answering their questions about why he was going to jail for seven days as had his two brothers before him. Three plain clothes policeman who said excuse me to the media persons pulled David's arm behind his back and dragged him into the station. Brian Mowbray, David's father, entered the station and requested an interview with a senior police officer. After fifteen minutes this was granted. Brian complained of the unnecessarily and unwarranted coercion used upon his son who was quietly and peacefully complying with the Supreme Court order.

The Mowbray triplets were deemed, during 1971, by Minister Snedden to be conscientious objectors under reg.32A, and were not proceeded against for their non-compliance. The Mowbray's was one of a number of cases that was causing unwelcome political pressure on the government.

Kevin Booker wrote to the Minister DLNS on 5 April 1970 informing him of his refusal to register for national service and saying, "I believe in Jesus Christ, I believe his teachings condemn militarism in any form. Hence, in my opinion the Government has no moral right to conscript myself, or anybody else for military duties" (Peacemaker 1970b, p. 6).

John Jedryka, a Christian, wrote a letter not only to the Minister but it was addressed also to the citizens of Australia. He informed all that he refused to register and the reasons why. He ended on a very personal note saying, "I have a nauseating horror at the thought of killing, and to me the highest ideal that I can reach is that I would prepare to die than kill. I am therefore totally and absolutely opposed to any organization, system or whatever that requires a man to kill" (Peacemaker 1970b, p. 6).

It was common for those who intentionally broke the law to view any sanctions that followed as a means of strengthening their non-violent opposition to the NSA. Many expressed the view that they "welcomed" imprisonment as a means of embarrassing the government and testing its will to continue with conscription.

#### *3.6. Finding 6*

A number of serving soldiers, conscripts already inducted into the army and those in the Citizen Military Force (CMF) made application for exemption from military service. These include Darrell Nolan, a Catholic who was already conscripted in the army, and Colin Park a Christadelphian who was a serving soldier. With all these men conscientious beliefs had developed after induction, or had matured during their time, in the military. Evidence from the applicant's statements at court hearings, including court martial, was that their military training was often an important factor.

William Rodgers of Dandenong, VIC was aged twenty-three years and married. He had been a member of the Citizen Military Force but had resigned and made application to be registered as a conscientious objector. His case was reported in the (Peacemaker 1970b, p. 3). He explained to Magistrate Foley hearing his application that the CMF training was important in the development of his conscientious beliefs. He stated that "we went on a training camp to Williamstown and the targets for target practice were shaped like human beings, some lying down and some standing up. We were to shoot at them". He told the court that he believed it was immoral to kill another human being and that he had become a conscientious objector during the past two years when he had become a Christian. He was a member of the Church of Christ. As a result he said that "he would not kill a human being or take part in the military machine". William was granted exemption from all military duties by the magistrate on 27 March 1970.

For some men their Christian faith became important after they joined the military and that experience was the catalyst for their conscientious objection. For others, like Rodgers, the military experience led to an awakening of a Christian conscience.

## *3.7. Finding 7*

Not all Christian conscientious objectors were pacifists to all war. Some were selective pacifists and refused to serve in the Vietnam War. The personal story of John Zarb was told earlier. Another was Darrell Nolan a Catholic from VIC, aged twenty-three years (Peacemaker 1968e, p. 3). He was an accountant. He had registered under the Act, passed the medical and was duly inducted into the army during February 1968. He applied for exemption from military service based on his objection to the immoral Vietnam War. His application was dismissed by the magistrate 28 November 1968 saying the NSA did not recognize conscientious objection to a particular war.

Little explicit mention is made by applicants to Just War Theory but it undoubtedly informed the conscience of a number, as the terms 'unjust war' and 'immoral war' are common in their statements.

#### *3.8. Finding 8*

Invariably Christian conscientious objectors argued that killing others was incompatible with Christianity and so could not perform combatant duties. They also usually held that they could not serve in any capacity with an organization dedicated to killing human beings. This ruled out non-combatant military duties. However, there were some that held that a non-combatant role was compatible with their Christian conscience. Graham Edser was one of these. The (Peacemaker 1968b, p. 3) reported that Graham was from Toowoomba, Queensland and by trade a pattern-maker. He was a Seventh Day Adventist. He applied for exemption from combatant military duties only, as was common for adherents of his denomination. Graham said this was based on his understanding of the 6th commandment *Thou shalt not kill*. Magistrate Peacock granted his application 26 April 1968.

Bruce French was from Lower Barrington, Tasmania (Peacemaker 1970b, p. 3). He was a Baptist and a school teacher. He applied for and was granted exemption from combatant duties by Magistrate Crisp at Devonport 7 February 1970. Bruce told the magistrate that "my Christian beliefs convince me that life is sacred and therefore the only acceptable form of defence is in terms of constructive aid and mutual understanding". The magistrate asked Bruce "how do you meet aggression". He started to answer by saying "I am prepared to prevent aggression starting". Crisp interjected "If our shores were attacked what would you do". Bruce responded "Diplomacy would be a more effective means of defence. I would not kill. I can say that categorically". Bruce explained that his beliefs had crystallized in study groups at the Hobart Baptist Church and at the University in Hobart. He was asked on what authority he based his antipathy to war. Bruce responded by saying his beliefs were based on the Old and New Testaments.
