*Review* **Mycelium-Based Composites in Art, Architecture, and Interior Design: A Review**

**Maciej Sydor 1,\* , Agata Bonenberg <sup>2</sup> , Beata Doczekalska <sup>3</sup> and Grzegorz Cofta <sup>3</sup>**


**Abstract:** Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) have attracted growing attention due to their role in the development of eco-design methods. We concurrently analysed scientific publications, patent documents, and results of our own feasibility studies to identify the current design issues and technologies used. A literature inquiry in scientific and patent databases (WoS, Scopus, The Lens, Google Patents) pointed to 92 scientific publications and 212 patent documents. As a part of our own technological experiments, we have created several prototype products used in architectural interior design. Following the synthesis, these sources of knowledge can be concluded: 1. MBCs are inexpensive in production, ecological, and offer a high artistic value. Their weaknesses are insufficient load capacity, unfavourable water affinity, and unknown reliability. 2. The scientific literature shows that the material parameters of MBCs can be adjusted to certain needs, but there are almost infinite combinations: properties of the input biomaterials, characteristics of the fungi species, and possible parameters during the growth and subsequent processing of the MBCs. 3. The patent documents show the need for development: an effective method to increase the density and the search for technologies to obtain a more homogeneous internal structure of the composite material. 4. Our own experiments with the production of various everyday objects indicate that some disadvantages of MBCs can be considered advantages. Such an unexpected advantage is the interesting surface texture resulting from the natural inhomogeneity of the internal structure of MBCs, which can be controlled to some extent.

**Keywords:** biomaterials; bio-composites; bio design; mycelium-based composites; biopolymers; interior design; architecture; wood; mycelium; fungi; patent documents

### **1. Introduction**

Fungi can use many types of by-products as substrates for growth. When mycelium penetrates a substrate, it acts as a natural self-assembling binder, holding a loose mixture in a monolithic form, creating a solid composite of biopolymers cellulose matrix and very dense chitin reinforcement. Mycelium can fill the volume with a very dense network; one gram of soil can contain up to 600 km of hyphae [1]. The mycelium growth pattern is related to the availability of food resources, water and environmental conditions, which constantly modify the network topology. The adaptive behaviour of fungi allows them to cope with various ephemeral resources, competition, damage, and predation in a completely different manner from multicellular plants or animals [2]. In nature, the organic matter for fungal growth comes from the remains of plant and animal organisms and their metabolites. In industrial conditions, various types of biological post-consumer wastes and by-products

**Citation:** Sydor, M.; Bonenberg, A.; Doczekalska, B.; Cofta, G. Mycelium-Based Composites in Art, Architecture, and Interior Design: A Review. *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, 145. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010145

Academic Editor: Petar Antov

Received: 7 December 2021 Accepted: 28 December 2021 Published: 31 December 2021

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**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

such as wood, straws, husks, chaws, and bagasse can be used as substrates for mycelial growth [3].

Mycelium-based composites are used in construction, packaging, and in the production of various types of products. MBCs are also well suited to applied arts. Philip Ross is the author of the "Hy-Fi" tower-pavilion presented at the "MoMA's PS1" exhibition in 2014 [4], in this building structure he combined wooden beams with MBC, thus compensating for the low mechanical strength of MBC. The artist is the author of several patent applications and scientific publications in this field [5]. Pascal Leboucq designed "The Growing Pavilion" constructed by Company New Heroes in 2019, a temporary event space at Dutch Design Week constructed with panels grown from mushroom mycelium supported on a timber frame. The Redhouse Architecture Bureau (Cleveland, OH, USA) promotes the use of wood construction waste, such as panels and window frames, which can be defragmented and re-bonded with mycelium and then used to build houses [6]. In Indonesia, Mycotech, Block Research Group and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology built a prototype spatial structure called "MycoTree" made of various biocomposites, with the addition of sugar cane and cassava root waste (2017) [7]. At Milan Design Week 2019, Carlo Ratti presented an installation entitled "Round Garden", built from a sequence of arches made of MBCs. The installation fits into the natural context and surroundings [8]. Various artists and designers have designed different mycelium-based products: e.g., Aniela Hoitink 2016 textiles, Erica Klarenbeek 2013 3D printed furniture, Jonas Edvard and Sebastian Cox 2013 lamps, Kristel Peeters and Mycofabrication 2009 shoes. Think tank Terreform ONE and non-profit organization Genspace have developed a series of seating furniture made of Mycoform (2016) [9]. Mycelium is an alternative to wood dust in 3D printing [10]. A group of British architects Blast Studio and Bio-Digital Matter Lab managed to 3D print a column of mycelium-based materials (2018) [4]. Team BioBabes printed 3D MBCs objects using polylactic acid to act as a temporary mycelium scaffold ("Hyper Articulated Myco-Morphs" 2016–2017) [11]. A number of cultural organizations research and popularize MBCs, like Futurium in series of exhibition "Mind the Fungi. Art & Design Residencies" in Berlin since 2019 [12], or Somerset House in series of cultural events "Mushrooms: The Art, Design and Future of Fungi" in London 2020 [13].

Mycelium-based composites have been reported as inventions since at least 2007 and are also the subject of scientific research. Taking into account the great potential and numerous advantages of such a material, it was considered appropriate to review the scientific literature and patent documents supplementing these sources of knowledge with our own experience in the field of manufacturing interior furnishings made of this type of interesting biocomposite. The main aim of the article is to synthesize information from the scientific literature, patent documents, and own experience to identify barriers and possibilities for an effective implementation of mycelium-based composites in industrial manufacturing, especially when applied to decorative objects used in architectural interior design of apartments.

#### **2. Results of the Literature Review**

At least 92 research papers have been published on mycelium-based composites (72 original articles [14–85], one being a hybrid of original and review articles [86], and 19 review articles [87–105]. The oldest article is from 2012 [14], the newest is from November, 2021 [81]. The analyzed articles are assigned to 19 subject areas. The two main research areas are "Materials Science" and "Engineering" (Figure 1).

Figure 2.

5%

Multidisciplinary; 5%

Architecture; 4%

Business, Management and Accounting; 4%

Chemical Engineering 3%

*Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

2%

Other 9%

Chemistry; 2% Immunology and Microbiology

**Figure 1.** Subject areas of scientific articles on mycelium-based composites. **Figure 1.** Subject areas of scientific articles on mycelium-based composites. keywords used in the most recent articles. As can be seen, these are the words "sustainable

Over 130 different "author keywords" are used in the articles. Associations and frequency of co-existence for 20 most frequently used "author keywords" are shown in Figure 2. Over 130 different "author keywords" are used in the articles. Associations and frequency of co-existence for 20 most frequently used "author keywords" are shown in Figure 2. development", "scanning electron microscopy", "construction industry" and "agricultural robots". This shows the changing research interests in this field. The five most cited articles according to Scopus are summarized in Table 1.

Engineering 22%

In the Figure 2, the frequency of occurrence of the keywords varies with time in color.

**Figure 2.** "Author keywords" associations in scientific articles on mycelium-based composites. **Figure 2.** "Author keywords" associations in scientific articles on mycelium-based composites.

**Figure 2.** "Author keywords" associations in scientific articles on mycelium-based composites. In the Figure 2, the frequency of occurrence of the keywords varies with time in color. VOSviewer was used; minor editorial changes have been made in the keywords: singular and plural forms of nouns ("fungus" = "fungi", "material" = "materials" etc.), the notation ("bio-composites" = "biocomposites" etc.), synonyms ("fungal mycelium" = "mycelium", "composite materials" = "composites", "bio-based composites" = "biocomposites" and "manufacturing process" = "manufacture"). Yellow color, turning red, indicates keywords used in the most recent articles. As can be seen, these are the words "sustainable development", "scanning electron microscopy", "construction industry" and "agricultural robots". This shows the changing research interests in this field.

The five most cited articles according to Scopus are summarized in Table 1.

There are different purposes for the research carried out. The vast majority of research focuses on finding out how to properly shape the constructional properties of the material. The objectives and results of selected research works on mycelium-based composites are collected in Table 2.


**Table 1.** The most frequently cited articles on mycelium-based composite materials according to Scopus.

**Table 2.** Parameters and aims of mycelium-based composites production in scientific research.


In 2016–2021, at least 20 scientific review articles were also published. The most important of these articles are listed in Table 3.

**Table 3.** List of scientific review publications for mycelium-based composites for art, architecture, and interior design.


#### **3. Results of Patents Documents Analysis**

A granted patent is an administrative decision: area and time limited, issued by the patent office, it provides protection for a feasible, new, non-obvious and potentially profitable solution. The basis for such a decision is a patent application, which requires an unambiguous description of the essence of the invention. The patent application also provides a priority date, i.e., the date of disclosure of the invention. The priority date can, for example, be the presentation of the invention at a trade fair or the publication of a description of the invention. Most often, however, it is the date when the invention is filed with the patent office. Some patent applications become granted patents. Inventions considered profitable by their owners are filed in many patent jurisdictions around the world. Subsequent applications may differ slightly from their prototypes in terms of content, the differences result mainly from the refinement of descriptions, as well as the rejection of some patent claims by various patent offices. The main patent documents are patent applications and granted patents from many patent offices, they form the so-called patent families. Thus, each patent family describes one invention, the date of its creation is given by its first application.

Patent documents were searched on the basis of the following keywords: mycelium; mycological; fungi; biopolymers; biomaterials; biocomposites. These words were searched for in the "TAC" sections of patent documents (TAC = title OR abstract OR claim). Searches were made in the International Patent Classification areas: C08\*, C12N\*, B27N\* B32B\* oraz B32B\*, and the list of documents was reviewed, limiting it to issues related to the production of plastics such as foams, boards and blocks used in construction, furniture, the automotive industry, as packaging and as artistic products. Thus, documents dealing with the production of woven fabric, i.e., all non-structural materials used in the manufacturing technique, were omitted. Publicly available databases and analytical tools such as Google Patents, The Lens were used, and the results of queries were exported to MS Excel for further analysis.

As a result of the analysis, 212 patent documents were identified: 153 patent applications, 55 patents granted on the basis of some of these applications, and additionally 2 amended applications, 1 amended patent and 1 patent of addition. They constitute 67 extended families, and thus describe 67 different technological and product inventions related to mycelium-based composites. The oldest document was received by the United States Patent and Trademark Office on 12 December 2007 [106], while the last of the analysed documents was on 9 April 2021 [107]. The annual numbers of patent applications, according to the years of their publication, are shown in Figure 3. *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21 the United States Patent and Trademark Office on 12 December 2007 [106], while the last of the analysed documents was on 9 April 2021 [107]. The annual numbers of patent applications, according to the years of their publication, are shown in Figure 3.

**Figure 3.** Annual number of patent applications according to publication year. **Figure 3.** Annual number of patent applications according to publication year.

Data for 2021 is incomplete, not all patent documents from this year are indexed in databases. The data on the annual number of patents presented in Figure 3 show a Data for 2021 is incomplete, not all patent documents from this year are indexed in databases. The data on the annual number of patents presented in Figure 3 show a significant increase in patent applications in the last two years.

significant increase in patent applications in the last two years. There are significant 9 people and organizations among the owners of patent documents. This is shown in Figure 4 as shares in overall number of patent documents. There are significant 9 people and organizations among the owners of patent documents. This is shown in Figure 4 as shares in overall number of patent documents.

> Automotive Components Holdings LLC; 6%

> > Eben Bayer; 8%

Bolt Threads INC; 1%

Ecovative Design LLC; 27%

The owner of the largest number of patent documents is Ecovative Design LCC (Albany, NY, USA), which has 27% of industrial property in this area (58 documents). Other persons and institutions affiliating many documents are: Eben Bayer and Mcintyre Gavin (both related to Ecovative Design LCC) and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Troy, MI, USA) (17 documents each), also Ford Global Technologies LLC and Automotive Components Holdings LLC, both owned by Ford Motor Company headquartered in

Mcintyre Gavin; 8% Ford Global Technologies LLC; 6%

The analysis of patent documents shows 9 main countries related with the myceliumbased composites (Figure 5). The largest number of affiliated patent documents is in the USA. However, the latest documents are affiliated in Germany, Belgium and China.

**Figure 4.** Shares of companies in the total number of patent applications.

Mycoworks INC; 4%

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; 8%

Visteon Global Technologies INC; 6%

Others; 26%

Dearborn, MI, USA (13 and 12 documents, respectively).

the United States Patent and Trademark Office on 12 December 2007 [106], while the last of the analysed documents was on 9 April 2021 [107]. The annual numbers of patent

Data for 2021 is incomplete, not all patent documents from this year are indexed in databases. The data on the annual number of patents presented in Figure 3 show a

There are significant 9 people and organizations among the owners of patent documents. This is shown in Figure 4 as shares in overall number of patent documents.

applications, according to the years of their publication, are shown in Figure 3.

6

2013

11

2014

6

2015

11

2016

16

2017

10

2018

14

2019

35

2020

23

2021

**Figure 3.** Annual number of patent applications according to publication year.

2012

10

significant increase in patent applications in the last two years.

<sup>4</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>5</sup>

2010

2011

2009

Annual number

of patent

applications

2008

**Figure 4.** Shares of companies in the total number of patent applications. **Figure 4.** Shares of companies in the total number of patent applications.

The owner of the largest number of patent documents is Ecovative Design LCC (Albany, NY, USA), which has 27% of industrial property in this area (58 documents). Other persons and institutions affiliating many documents are: Eben Bayer and Mcintyre Gavin (both related to Ecovative Design LCC) and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Troy, MI, USA) (17 documents each), also Ford Global Technologies LLC and Automotive Components Holdings LLC, both owned by Ford Motor Company headquartered in The owner of the largest number of patent documents is Ecovative Design LCC (Albany, NY, USA), which has 27% of industrial property in this area (58 documents). Other persons and institutions affiliating many documents are: Eben Bayer and Mcintyre Gavin (both related to Ecovative Design LCC) and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Troy, MI, USA) (17 documents each), also Ford Global Technologies LLC and Automotive Components Holdings LLC, both owned by Ford Motor Company headquartered in Dearborn, MI, USA (13 and 12 documents, respectively). *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

Dearborn, MI, USA (13 and 12 documents, respectively). The analysis of patent documents shows 9 main countries related with the myceliumbased composites (Figure 5). The largest number of affiliated patent documents is in the The analysis of patent documents shows 9 main countries related with the myceliumbased composites (Figure 5). The largest number of affiliated patent documents is in the USA. However, the latest documents are affiliated in Germany, Belgium and China.

USA. However, the latest documents are affiliated in Germany, Belgium and China.

**Figure 5.** Links between countries in patent documents. **Figure 5.** Links between countries in patent documents.

**Table 4.** Granted patents.

**Patent No., Application Year—**

liquid fungal mixture. 4 US 8,298,810 B2,

**Order No.** 

<sup>1</sup>US 9,485,917 B2,

<sup>2</sup>US 8,001,719 B2,

<sup>3</sup>US 8,313,939 B2,

<sup>11</sup>US 9,410,116 B2,

<sup>12</sup>US 9,879,219 B2,

<sup>13</sup>CA 2,834,095 C,

<sup>14</sup>US 10,154,627 B2,

2012—2018, [119]

2013—2018, [121]

2007—2016, [108]

2009—2011, [109]

2010—2012, [111]

5 US 8,227,233 B2 [112]

In 29 patent families there is at least one granted patent, these families are In 29 patent families there is at least one granted patent, these families are summarized in Table 4, presenting one selected patent from each such patents family.

fungal fruiting bodies and product made thereby

2010—2012, [110] FGT, ACH (Ford Global Technologies LLC, Automotive Components

summarized in Table 4, presenting one selected patent from each such patents family.

ED (Ecovative Design LLC). Method for producing grown materials and

ED. Method for producing rapidly renewable chitinous material using

Holdings LLC). A method of making a moulded automotive part with a

ED. A method of producing a chitinous polymer derived from fungal

ED. Growing mycological biomaterials in tools that are consumed or

products made thereby

6 US 8,227,224 B2 [113] FGT, ACH. Method of making moulded part comprising mycelium coupled to mechanical device

9 US 8,298,809 B2 [116] FGT, ACH. Method of making a hardened elongate structure from

8 US 8,283,153 B2 [115] FGT, ACH. Mycelium structures containing nanocomposite materials and

10 CN 102,329,512 B [117] Ford Global Technologies LLC. The sheet stock mycelium of cutting and

enveloped during the growth process

7 US 8,227,225 B2 [114] FGT, ACH. Plasticized mycelium composite and method

method

mycelium

method

growth

2011—2016, [118] Mycoworks Inc. building materials

2012—2018, [120] ED. Dehydrated mycelium panels.


#### **Table 4.** Granted patents.

More than 200 patent documents make it impossible to "intuitively" indicate the key inventions in the field of mycelium-based composites. Undoubtedly, the first patent application (US 2008/0145577 A1, "Method for producing grown materials and products made thereby" [106], filing date 12 December 2007) is important, but there are likely to be other influential inventions in this field. In the 2019 scientific article on the review of wood screw patents [136], the following criteria were proposed for the identification of important patents:


Using these two criteria, the most influential patent documents for mycelium-based technology were listed in Table 5.


**Table 5.** Most influenced patent documents.

The generalized MBCs production protocol can be compiled from research articles, patent documents, or open source manuals (e.g., [142]). Such a general protocol includes:


The review of patent documents shows that biofoam composites and layered structures with mycelium-based composites can be used in building structures as structural materials (e.g., the core of sandwich panels and gap fillers), interior finishing materials (e.g., wall panels) and floors), as well as materials for portable home furnishings (furniture and other portable items) and packaging materials. They can have an insulating function due to

their low heat conductivity or a sound-absorbing function. Biocomposites can therefore be an alternative to synthetic foams found in automotive bumpers, doors, roofs, engine cavities, boot linings, dashboards, and seats because the mycelium-based material has the same or better ability to absorb impacts, insulate, dampen sound and provide lightweight construction in the car from typical synthetic foams. The material also showed good fire resistance. Applications in the construction industry are mainly limited to fire-proof thermal and acoustic insulators. So far, the use of this innovative biocomposite in the construction industry has been limited only to a small scale and to exhibition installations. *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21 Cycle Assessment information for this material, and lack of standard production methods and standardized methods for testing material properties.

> Considering all the ecological advantages of mycelial and bio-substrate composites, the question arises, why such materials are not used very widely. Potential reasons for this may be problems with low mechanical properties, high water absorption, lack of Life Cycle Assessment information for this material, and lack of standard production methods and standardized methods for testing material properties. **4. Mycelium-Based Material in Elements of Interior Design—Case Study**  Even though the mycelium-based composites is currently studied mostly for purposes in which visual or aesthetical aspects are insignificant, like packaging, experiments performed by the authors suggest that it can be successfully used for creating

#### **4. Mycelium-Based Material in Elements of Interior Design—Case Study** interior design elements. Mycelium-based materials embrace a new aesthetics

Even though the mycelium-based composites is currently studied mostly for purposes in which visual or aesthetical aspects are insignificant, like packaging, experiments performed by the authors suggest that it can be successfully used for creating interior design elements. Mycelium-based materials embrace a new aesthetics characterized by imperfections and irregularities through natural and spontaneous growth, thus achieving a unique structure, as in wood. The physical and geometric properties of objects evolve and change slightly over time. These properties make it an unusual and challenging material. Different textures that characterize the material samples depend on how the substrate has been formed before the growth; the material's surface has visible natural fibres and dominating natural mycelium colouring: off-whites with yellow or brownish irregularities in more mature areas. The user perceives these characteristics as organic, warm, and natural, which influences the typology of products that could be created. characterized by imperfections and irregularities through natural and spontaneous growth, thus achieving a unique structure, as in wood. The physical and geometric properties of objects evolve and change slightly over time. These properties make it an unusual and challenging material. Different textures that characterize the material samples depend on how the substrate has been formed before the growth; the material's surface has visible natural fibres and dominating natural mycelium colouring: off-whites with yellow or brownish irregularities in more mature areas. The user perceives these characteristics as organic, warm, and natural, which influences the typology of products that could be created. The first shapes obtained from mycelium-based material by Agata Bonenberg were

The first shapes obtained from mycelium-based material by Agata Bonenberg were simple panels that allowed the growth and maturation of the material to be observed (Figures 6 and 7). Then spherical objects were created to study the emergence of different textures: smooth (Figure 8), rough (Figure 9). The object shown in Figure 10 combines both; it has a smooth well-fragmented substrate at the bottom, and an uneven, rough part at the top. This opens interesting possibilities for future projects. simple panels that allowed the growth and maturation of the material to be observed (Figures 6 and 7). Then spherical objects were created to study the emergence of different textures: smooth (Figure 8), rough (Figure 9). The object shown in Figure 10 combines both; it has a smooth well-fragmented substrate at the bottom, and an uneven, rough part at the top. This opens interesting possibilities for future projects.

**Figure 6.** Mycelium-based material during growth (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 6.** Mycelium-based material during growth (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**.** 

**Figure 7.** Mycelium-based material after growth: smooth surface with (design and photo: A.

Bonenberg).

that could be created.

**Figure 7.** Mycelium-based material after growth: smooth surface with (design and photo: A. **Figure 7.** Mycelium-based material after growth: smooth surface with (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 6.** Mycelium-based material during growth (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

Cycle Assessment information for this material, and lack of standard production methods

Even though the mycelium-based composites is currently studied mostly for purposes in which visual or aesthetical aspects are insignificant, like packaging, experiments performed by the authors suggest that it can be successfully used for creating interior design elements. Mycelium-based materials embrace a new aesthetics characterized by imperfections and irregularities through natural and spontaneous growth, thus achieving a unique structure, as in wood. The physical and geometric properties of objects evolve and change slightly over time. These properties make it an unusual and challenging material. Different textures that characterize the material samples depend on how the substrate has been formed before the growth; the material's surface has visible natural fibres and dominating natural mycelium colouring: off-whites with yellow or brownish irregularities in more mature areas. The user perceives these characteristics as organic, warm, and natural, which influences the typology of products

The first shapes obtained from mycelium-based material by Agata Bonenberg were simple panels that allowed the growth and maturation of the material to be observed (Figures 6 and 7). Then spherical objects were created to study the emergence of different textures: smooth (Figure 8), rough (Figure 9). The object shown in Figure 10 combines both; it has a smooth well-fragmented substrate at the bottom, and an uneven, rough part

**4. Mycelium-Based Material in Elements of Interior Design—Case Study**

and standardized methods for testing material properties.

at the top. This opens interesting possibilities for future projects.

**Figure 8.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth texture, with visible fibres (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 8.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth texture, with visible fibres (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 8.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth texture, with visible fibres (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

and photo: A. Bonenberg).

and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 9.** Mycelium-based composite: rough texture, deriving from substrate fragmentation (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 9.** Mycelium-based composite: rough texture, deriving from substrate fragmentation (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 9.** Mycelium-based composite: rough texture, deriving from substrate fragmentation (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 10.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth and rough textures, combined in one object (design

**Figure 10.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth and rough textures, combined in one object (design

has been fixed on a simple cubical timber base (Figures 11 and 12).

has been fixed on a simple cubical timber base (Figures 11 and 12).

Experimentation with textures and shapes of forms has led to preliminary product development and production. The designs of a table light fixture, a table bowl, and a coffee table have been executed. In each of these projects, mycelium-based elements had to be combined with other materials. The author has chosen natural components such as timber to match the design's pro-ecological spirit and give overall natural "touch". The small table lamp is a good example of this approach: a mycelium-grown, cylindrical lampshade

Experimentation with textures and shapes of forms has led to preliminary product development and production. The designs of a table light fixture, a table bowl, and a coffee table have been executed. In each of these projects, mycelium-based elements had to be combined with other materials. The author has chosen natural components such as timber to match the design's pro-ecological spirit and give overall natural "touch". The small table lamp is a good example of this approach: a mycelium-grown, cylindrical lampshade

and photo: A. Bonenberg).

Bonenberg).

**Figure 10.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth and rough textures, combined in one object (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 10.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth and rough textures, combined in one object (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 8.** Mycelium-based composite: smooth texture, with visible fibres (design and photo: A.

**Figure 9.** Mycelium-based composite: rough texture, deriving from substrate fragmentation (design

Experimentation with textures and shapes of forms has led to preliminary product development and production. The designs of a table light fixture, a table bowl, and a coffee table have been executed. In each of these projects, mycelium-based elements had to be combined with other materials. The author has chosen natural components such as timber to match the design's pro-ecological spirit and give overall natural "touch". The small Experimentation with textures and shapes of forms has led to preliminary product development and production. The designs of a table light fixture, a table bowl, and a coffee table have been executed. In each of these projects, mycelium-based elements had to be combined with other materials. The author has chosen natural components such as timber to match the design's pro-ecological spirit and give overall natural "touch". The small table lamp is a good example of this approach: a mycelium-grown, cylindrical lampshade has been fixed on a simple cubical timber base (Figures 11 and 12). *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

**Figure 11.** Mycelium-based light fixture: (**a**)—with lamp on, (**b**)—general appearance (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 11.** Mycelium-based light fixture: (**a**)—with lamp on, (**b**)—general appearance (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

Similarly, a container bowl was created, where an upper part of the object was fixed to the rough-timber torus-shaped base (Figures 12 and 13). Again, the look of the object is "organic". At the same time, the heavier wooden base gives the bowl its functional

**.** 

**Figure 12.** Mycelium-based semi-finished object (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

stability.

photo: A. Bonenberg).

stability.

**Figure 12.** Mycelium-based semi-finished object (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 12.** Mycelium-based semi-finished object (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). Similarly, a container bowl was created, where an upper part of the object was fixed to the rough-timber torus-shaped base (Figures 12 and 13). Again, the look of the object is "organic". At the same time, the heavier wooden base gives the bowl its functional stability. *Polymers* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

(**a**) (**b**)

**Figure 11.** Mycelium-based light fixture: (**a**)—with lamp on, (**b**)—general appearance (design and

to the rough-timber torus-shaped base (Figures 12 and 13). Again, the look of the object is "organic". At the same time, the heavier wooden base gives the bowl its functional

Similarly, a container bowl was created, where an upper part of the object was fixed

**Figure 13.** Finished object: mycelium-based bowl fixed to the rough-timber torus-shape base (design **Figure 13.** Finished object: mycelium-based bowl fixed to the rough-timber torus-shape base (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

and photo: A. Bonenberg). Another artifact created is a coffee table where a mycelium-based tabletop has been grown on a metal frame, ensuring its structural stability (Figure 14). The tabletop is thick but light, with well-consolidated smooth surfaces from the top and sides, but an uneven and rough texture can be perceived from the bottom. In addition, there is a clear contrast Another artifact created is a coffee table where a mycelium-based tabletop has been grown on a metal frame, ensuring its structural stability (Figure 14). The tabletop is thick but light, with well-consolidated smooth surfaces from the top and sides, but an uneven and rough texture can be perceived from the bottom. In addition, there is a clear contrast between the thin steel legs of the table and the thick-bodied top. Finally, the triangular shape gives the object expressive, characteristic looks.

between the thin steel legs of the table and the thick-bodied top. Finally, the triangular

**Figure 14.** Coffee table with mycelium-based tabletop (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

conclusions can be drawn from the reviewed content presented:

The challenge of unconventional materials is the technique of fastening elements [143,144]. The new material requires a new approach in this field, which will be a further

Regarding the current excessive dependence of the construction and production industry on hydrocarbon-containing materials occurring within Earth's crust; taking into account the abundance of waste and industrial by-products, it is necessary to make greater use of the advantages of biomaterials with a low carbon footprint [145–152]. The following

direction of our activities.

**5. Conclusions**

shape gives the object expressive, characteristic looks.

and photo: A. Bonenberg).

**Figure 13.** Finished object: mycelium-based bowl fixed to the rough-timber torus-shape base (design

Another artifact created is a coffee table where a mycelium-based tabletop has been grown on a metal frame, ensuring its structural stability (Figure 14). The tabletop is thick but light, with well-consolidated smooth surfaces from the top and sides, but an uneven

**Figure 14.** Coffee table with mycelium-based tabletop (design and photo: A. Bonenberg). **Figure 14.** Coffee table with mycelium-based tabletop (design and photo: A. Bonenberg).

The challenge of unconventional materials is the technique of fastening elements [143,144]. The new material requires a new approach in this field, which will be a further direction of our activities. The challenge of unconventional materials is the technique of fastening elements [143,144]. The new material requires a new approach in this field, which will be a further direction of our activities.

#### **5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions**

shape gives the object expressive, characteristic looks.

Regarding the current excessive dependence of the construction and production industry on hydrocarbon-containing materials occurring within Earth's crust; taking into account the abundance of waste and industrial by-products, it is necessary to make greater use of the advantages of biomaterials with a low carbon footprint [145–152]. The following Regarding the current excessive dependence of the construction and production industry on hydrocarbon-containing materials occurring within Earth's crust; taking into account the abundance of waste and industrial by-products, it is necessary to make greater use of the advantages of biomaterials with a low carbon footprint [145–152]. The following conclusions can be drawn from the reviewed content presented:

	- 2. A review of the scientific literature shows that the material parameters of MBCs can be adjusted to the needs: by selecting the type of substrate and fungus species, by controlling the growth conditions, the method of inactivation of the mycelium after growth, and the drying method. In this way, it is possible to meet certain requirements, e.g., increase the structural load-bearing capacity to an acceptable level and reduce the affinity with water, and additionally improve the acoustic and thermal insulation. However, the problem is the almost infinite number of combinations: properties of the input biomaterials, characteristics of the mushroom species, and parameters during growth and subsequent processing of the MBC.
	- 3. The review of patent documents shows that two current technological challenges are related to the creation of MBCs with the properties required by the final product. Especially, looking for an effective method of increasing strength, for example by increasing the density, the search for a method of obtaining a more homogeneous internal structure.
	- 4. The described own technological experiments, consisting of the production of various everyday objects, indicate that some disadvantages of MBCs can be considered advantages. Such an unexpected advantage is the interesting and unrepeatable surface texture resulting from the natural unevenness of the internal structure of MBCs, which can be controlled to some extent.

The presented results of the analysis of a wide variety of literature and own technological experiments suggest that the share of mycelium-based composites in industrial production and construction will increase, despite certain limitations of this innovative

class of materials in terms of manufacturing difficulties, insufficient strength, unknown durability and reliability, and challenges in fastening technology. These problems will be gradually solved or at least significantly minimized. This is supported by the fundamental advantages of these types of bio-composites, i.e., the ability to produce from by-products or waste, low energy requirements for production, biodegradability and artistic values.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.B; methodology, M.S.; software, M.S.; validation, M.S.; formal analysis, B.D. and G.C.; investigation, A.B.; resources, A.B. and M.S.; data curation, B.D. and G.C.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S. and A.B.; writing—review and editing, M.S.; visualization, A.B.; supervision, M.S.; project administration, A.B.; funding acquisition, A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding. The APC was funded by Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture (SDBAD 2021 "Shaping architecture and interiors in the context of contemporary cultural and social transformations–Kształtowanie architektury i wn˛etrz w kontek´scie współczesnych przeobraze ´n kulturowo-społecznych" ERP 0113/SBAD/2131). ˙

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the submitted article.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

