*2.1. Proximate Composition and Energy Value*

GF foods often display an inappropriate nutritional profile, deficient in many nutrients [4,32]. Montowska et al. [20] showed that CP is a rich source of protein and other substances, including minerals. In the present study, CP increased the content of protein, fat, and dietary fiber in breads enriched with it (Table 1). Despite the widespread recognition of insects as a very good source of protein [10], a significant, but not spectacular, increase in its content was noted. Replacing starch with CP at the amount of 2%, 6%, and 10% (BCP2, BCP6, and BCP10, respectively) resulted in a two, four, and seven-fold increase in protein content, respectively. The Kjeldahl method measures nitrogen and has been validated for protein determination in food using a specific conversion factor for various products considering that all nitrogen present is in the form of protein. An incorrect nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor results in an overestimated protein content in edible insects [33]. Due to the exoskeleton of arthropods, composed of, inter alia, chitin, glucosamine polysaccharides, and nitrogen-rich N-acetylglucosamine [34], the use of an appropriate conversion factor is essential [35]. The fat content increased by 23%, 59%, and 105% for BCP2, BCP6, and BCP10, respectively, compared to reference bread (RB). Insects are rich in fat in their early stages of development [36,37], whereas CP was prepared from

adult crickets. In addition to macronutrients, insects are also a source of dietary fiber, mainly insoluble [38], which resulted in three-fold increase in its content in CP-enriched breads. Importantly, despite the differences in the content of individual macronutrients in breads, including carbohydrates, no significant change in the energy value was observed.

**Parameter RB BCP2 BCP6 BCP10** Moisture [%] 51.14 <sup>±</sup> 2.13 <sup>a</sup> 50.20 <sup>±</sup> 2.61 <sup>a</sup> 51.94 <sup>±</sup> 1.94 <sup>a</sup> 50.45 <sup>±</sup> 2.05 <sup>a</sup> Protein [%] 1.23 <sup>±</sup> 0.21 <sup>d</sup> 2.56 <sup>±</sup> 0.19 <sup>c</sup> 5.85 <sup>±</sup> 0.34 <sup>b</sup> 8.48 <sup>±</sup> 0.53 <sup>a</sup> Fat [%] 0.78 <sup>±</sup> 0.09 <sup>c</sup> 0.96 <sup>±</sup> 0.11 <sup>c</sup> 1.24 <sup>±</sup> 0.07 <sup>b</sup> 1.60 <sup>±</sup> 0.12 <sup>a</sup> Fiber [%] SDF 1.64 <sup>±</sup> 0.08 <sup>b</sup> 1.79 <sup>±</sup> 0.15 <sup>b</sup> 2.00 <sup>±</sup> 0.13 <sup>a</sup> 2.06 <sup>±</sup> 0.11 <sup>a</sup> IDF 0.44 <sup>±</sup> 0.06 <sup>d</sup> 0.73 <sup>±</sup> 0.11 <sup>c</sup> 1.14 <sup>±</sup> 0.04 <sup>b</sup> 1.48 <sup>±</sup> 0.13 <sup>a</sup> TDF 2.08 <sup>±</sup> 0.02 <sup>d</sup> 2.52 <sup>±</sup> 0.28 <sup>c</sup> 3.14 <sup>±</sup> 0.14 <sup>b</sup> 3.54 <sup>±</sup> 0.17 <sup>a</sup> Ash [%] 1.10 <sup>±</sup> 0.07 <sup>c</sup> 1.85 <sup>±</sup> 0.08 <sup>b</sup> 1.91 <sup>±</sup> 0.08 ab 2.01 <sup>±</sup> 0.05 <sup>a</sup> Carbohydrates <sup>1</sup> [%] 43.67 <sup>±</sup> 1.07 <sup>a</sup> 41.91 <sup>±</sup> 1.22 <sup>b</sup> 35.92 <sup>±</sup> 2.01 <sup>c</sup> 33.92 <sup>±</sup> 1.29 <sup>c</sup> Energy value <sup>2</sup> [kcal/100 g] 190.78 <sup>±</sup> 7.11 <sup>a</sup> 191.56 <sup>±</sup> 4.28 <sup>a</sup> 184.52 <sup>±</sup> 6.62 <sup>a</sup> 191.08 <sup>±</sup> 8.03 <sup>a</sup>

**Table 1.** Proximate composition and energy value of obtained breads.

<sup>1</sup> The carbohydrate content was estimated by subtracting the average content of ash, fat, fiber, and protein from 100%. <sup>2</sup> Energy value was calculated based on the average moisture, protein, fat, fiber, and carbohydrate content. Mean values with the same letters in the row (a–d) were not significantly different (α = 0.05). RB—reference bread; BCP2, BCP6, BCP10—breads with starch replaced with cricket powder (CP) at 2%, 6%, and 10%, respectively; IDF—insoluble dietary fiber; SDF—soluble dietary fiber; TDF—total dietary fiber.

The addition of CP changed the content of most of the minerals in the analyzed breads, although the degree of these changes varied among the assessed minerals. Crickets are a good source of minerals. According to the data reported by Ghosh et al. [17], they contain significant amounts of calcium, magnesium, and iron. Phytic acid present in insects can chelate minerals, including iron [39], rendering them effectively indigestible. The content of minerals, expressed in mg for a 100 g edible portion, and the values of mineral requirements, population reference intakes (PRIs) and adequate intakes (AIs), are presented in Table 2. The percentage of provided dietary reference intakes (DRIs) was calculated for 100 g portion (two regular or four thin slices) of bread. The percentage of DRIs and AI for Ca, Fe, K, and Mg increased from about 1% to 2% (portion of control bread) to between 3% and 4% (BCP10). The content of Na was at the same level in all analyzed breads (approximately 300 mg/100 g) and resulted from their recipe and added salt. The most desirable improvement in the mineral profile was obtained for Cu, P, Mn, and Zn. BCP10 could be regarded as an important source of Cu (23% of DRI) and P (13% of DRI), whereas a portion of RB provided only 8% and 5% of DRI for these minerals, respectively. The content of Zn increased from 0.40 mg in RB (4% of DRI) to 1.08 mg in BCP10 (11% of DRI), and that of Fe increased from 0.24 to 0.59 mg (2% to 4% of DRI).



Mean values with the same letters in the row (a, b) were not significantly different (α = 0.05). RB—reference bread; BCP2, BCP6, BCP10 breads with starch replaced with CP at 2%, 6%, and 10%, respectively; PRI—population reference intakes; AI—adequate intakes.

> In addition to protein and minerals, CP is also a source of fat. Montowska et al. [20] reported that the fat content of commercial CPs ranges from 23.6% to 29.1%. According to Kim et al. [40], the main fatty acids in CP are palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1),

and linoleic acid (C18:2). Fats present in the dough affect the nutritional value of bread, but also their derivatives (hydroperoxides) are responsible for the formation of volatile compounds in breads [41].

The addition of CP changed the fatty acid profile in the prepared bread (Table 3). In all samples, the main fatty acid was oleic acid (C18:1), which constituted from 54.97% to 68.72% of all fatty acids. For oleic acid, a decrease in the share with an increase in CP addition was observed. Linoleic acid (C18:2) was also characterized by a high content, with its share increasing from 18.56% to 25.29% along with an increase in the CP addition. The increase in the proportion was also characteristic of palmitic acid (C16:0), which content increased from 4.04% in the RB bread to 8.80% in the BCP10 bread. Changes in the share of individual fatty acids also manifested in the content of individual groups of fatty acids. Along with the increase in CP addition, an increase in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and a decrease in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were observed. This phenomenon can be explained, as the main source of fat in the RB sample was the oleic-rich rapeseed oil. CP is characterized by a high content of linoleic acid (C18:2; 35%), palmitic acid (C16:0; 25.52%), and stearic acid (C18:0; 7.76%) [42]. In addition, Ghosh et al. [17] indicated that crickets contain more PUFA than MUFA, which is consistent with the observed changes in the fat acid profile in CP-enriched breads. The increase in CP content in the samples significantly increased the share of these acids in the pool of fatty acids.


**Table 3.** Fatty acid composition of GF breads enriched with CP [%].

Mean values with the same letters in the row (a–d) were not significantly different (α = 0.05). RB—reference bread; BCP2, BCP6, BCP10—breads with starch replaced with CP at 2%, 6%, and 10%, respectively; N/D—not detected; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids. Calculated based on the mean content.
