**3. Results**

### *3.1. The Prevalence of H. pylori Infection among the Study Participants*

In the present study, 200 participants were recruited. The prevalence of *H. pylori* infection among the study population was 55.5% (95% CI: 48.7%, 62.3%). *H. pylori* status was determined in more than half of the participants (51%) by gastric biopsy testing, 35.5% by a urea breath test, and 13.5% by both methods (Table S1).

### *3.2. Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Study Participants*

Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants and the association between the sociodemographic characteristics and *H. pylori* infection. The age range of the participants was between 18 to 79 years and the mean age was 51.4 years (95% CI: 49.5–53.3). The proportion of females was larger than males (57% vs. 43%). The majority of participants were married (80%) and with a high school education or less (70.5%).




#### **Table 1.** *Cont.*

Data in bold are statistically significant.

*3.3. Association of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Lifestyle Factors with H. pylori Infection*

*H. pylori* infection was significantly higher among participants with high school education or less compared to those with college/university education (*p* = 0. 035) (Table 1). *H. pylori* infection was more prevalent among smokers (73.9%) compared to non-smokers (53.1%); however, the difference was not statistically significant (Table 2). There was no significant association between *H. pylori* infection and any of the lifestyle factors investigated in this study (Table 2).




**Table 2.** *Cont.*

#### *3.4. Association between Dietary Habits and H. pylori Infection*

Table 3 demonstrates the differences and associations between the frequency of consumption of food and beverages in *H. pylori* positive and negative participants. There was a significant negative relationship between the mean level of green tea (*p* = 0.012), honey (*p* = 0.018), and coffee consumption (*p* = 0.007) with *H. pylori* infection. The mean of frequency of green tea, coffee, and honey intake was significantly lower among the *H. pylori* infected participants compared to their non-infected counterparts. There was no significant association between the mean level of frequency of consumption of other food and beverage items and *H. pylori* infection.

Table 4 shows that the *H. pylori* positivity rate was significantly lower (38.6%) in green tea consumers ≥ 1 day/week compared with their counterparts (60.3%) (*p* = 0.0011). Logistic regression analysis showed a lower risk of *H. pylori* infection in participants who consume green tea ≥ 1 day/week (OR, 0.011; 95% CI, 0.23–0.92). *H. pylori* positivity rate was lower (50%) in coffee consumers ≥ 1 day/week compared with their counterparts (63.4%) and in honey consumers ≥ 1 day/week (48.8%) compared with the other participants (60.5%), but this difference was not statistically significant (Table 4).

As shown in Table 5, *H. pylori* infection was more prevalent among participants who consumed well water during childhood as the main source of drinking water (66%), chili peppers (58.8%), salty foods (60.6%), and restaurant meals more than three times a week (59%); however, the differences were not statistically significant.
