*2.1. Study Area*

The study was conducted in three communities in the Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality (longitudes 1◦5 W and 1◦39 W and latitudes 7◦9 N and 7◦36 N), located in the Forest–Savanna transition zone of mid-Ghana. The communities were Ejura, which is the municipal capital, Kasei and Anyinasu (Figure 1). The communities were selected in collaboration with the Municipal Agriculture Directorate to obtain a wider geographical spread covering major maize production hubs. The transitional agroecological zone coincides with Zone C in the Ghana Meteorological Agency's (GMet) agroecological classification scheme. The municipality has a land area of about 1782.2 square kilometers.

Vegetation in the Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality is predominantly characterized by semi-deciduous forest. Mean annual rainfall totals range from 1200 to 1500 mm and decrease from south to north following the general rainfall distribution in Ghana. Rainfall in the municipality has a bi-modal pattern. The major rainy season spans late March/early April and mid-July, which is interspersed by a short dry spell from mid-July to mid-August, followed by the minor rainy season in September/October. The long dry season, also called the "harmattan", runs from November through March. The bi-modal rainfall pattern allows two growing seasons, especially for cereals and legumes under rain-fed agriculture, which is widely practiced in the transition zone. The mean monthly temperature ranges from 21 to 30 ◦C. The months of January through April are the warmest whereas July and August are the coolest. During the rainy season, humidity is relatively high, peaking at 90% in June and dropping to roughly 55% in February.

**Figure 1.** Map showing the study communities. Source: Authors' construct. **Figure 1.** Map showing the study communities. Source: Authors' construct.

Vegetation in the Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality is predominantly characterized by semi-deciduous forest. Mean annual rainfall totals range from 1200 to 1500 mm and decrease from south to north following the general rainfall distribution in Ghana. Rainfall in the municipality has a bi-modal pattern. The major rainy season spans late March/early April and mid-July, which is interspersed by a short dry spell from mid-July to mid-August, followed by the minor rainy season in September/October. The long dry season, also called the "harmattan", runs from November through March. The bi-modal rainfall pattern allows two growing seasons, especially for cereals and legumes under rain-fed Soils in the Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality fall under the Forest and Savanna ochrosols. Characteristically, the soils have a deep profile, are light in color, are well aerated with a moderate supply of organic matter and plant nutrients, and have good water-holding capacity. The climatic conditions together with vegetation and soil offer suitable conditions for agriculture, especially maize production. According to Cossar, et al. [8], maize production accounts for about 41% of the total cropped area in the municipality. The high contribution of the municipality to maize grain production in Ghana makes it suitable for studies on maize failures.

The municipality had a population of about 121,765 in the year 2020. Agriculture employs about 60% of the labor force and serves as the main source of livelihood for most people in the municipality. Furthermore, agriculture in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality is predominantly smallholding and includes crop production and livestock rearing. Besides maize, farmers in the municipality produce cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*, (L.) Walp), groundnuts (*Arachis hypogaea*, L.), rice (*Oryza sativa*, L.), cassava (*Manihot esculenta*, Crantz), yam

(*Dioscorea* spp.) and vegetables mostly for commercial purposes. The most common farm animals raised include cattle, goats, sheep and poultry.
