2.2.2. Worlds of Production and Quality Conventions in the FSC Context

To simplify our development of the FSC typology at the product/process level, we turn to common categorizations of foods developed by governmental agencies for the purpose of promoting public health. Such agencies typically define nutritious foods in the following general categories: (1) Grains; (2) Protein sources including meat, poultry, and eggs; (3) Dairy products; and (4) Fruits and vegetables [49]. We considered each of these categories, in combination with our search of the literature, to identify versions of similar categories of products that logically belong in different quadrants of the typology. By evaluating these categories against the convention attributes identified in Table 1, we were able to develop a list of quality conventions associated with each quadrant; our categorization is consistent with the limited literature that has assessed consumer perceptions of labeling that reflects sustainability across health and environmental dimensions [50]. We use the convention definitions and attributes identified in Table 1 to develop examples representative of food products and processes exhibiting the supply and demand characteristics that form the worlds of production (Figure 1). Based on the convention configurations, we tentatively labeled the four quadrants as: (1) Mainstream; (2) Future Emergent; (3) Growth; and (4) Niche (see Figure 2).

(3) Growth; and (4) Niche (see Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Food product/process typology with product exemplars.

### **Figure 2.** Food product/process typology with product exemplars. **3. Research Design and Methodology**

**3. Research Design and Methodology**  We empirically investigate the typology using case study methods. These methods are appropriate because they allow us to collect rich data via semi-structured interviews as well as other primary sources for a breadth of cases that represent the diversity present in the food industry [29,51]. Because this work aims to elaborate and integrate extant theory to propose a new theoretical framework, it is, of necessity, somewhat exploratory in nature [18,29,52]. Case methods are particularly valuable in meeting our research objectives, which rely on the richness of data collected via interviews and triangulated with other sources. We have several objectives in conducting this study. First, we aim to uncover *patterns of how quality conventions are bundled and prioritized* for various food products We empirically investigate the typology using case study methods. These methods are appropriate because they allow us to collect rich data via semi-structured interviews as well as other primary sources for a breadth of cases that represent the diversity present in the food industry [29,51]. Because this work aims to elaborate and integrate extant theory to propose a new theoretical framework, it is, of necessity, somewhat exploratory in nature [18,29,52]. Case methods are particularly valuable in meeting our research objectives, which rely on the richness of data collected via interviews and triangulated with other sources. We have several objectives in conducting this study. First, we aim to uncover *patterns of how quality conventions are bundled and prioritized* for various food products and processes based on supply and demand characteristics. Second, we explore how *organizations participate in multiple quadrants of the typology to offer portfolios of products and to pursue competitive advantage*. Finally, we identify *patterns and drivers of transitions between quadrants of the typology* [50].

categories of products that logically belong in different quadrants of the typology. By evaluating these categories against the convention attributes identified in Table 1, we were able to develop a list of quality conventions associated with each quadrant; our categorization is consistent with the limited literature that has assessed consumer perceptions of labeling that reflects sustainability across health and environmental dimensions [50]. We use the convention definitions and attributes identified in Table 1 to develop examples representative of food products and processes exhibiting the supply and demand characteristics that form the worlds of production (Figure 1). Based on the convention configurations, we tentatively labeled the four quadrants as: (1) Mainstream; (2) Future Emergent;

### and processes based on supply and demand characteristics. Second, we explore how *organizations participate in multiple quadrants of the typology to offer portfolios of products and to 3.1. Case Selection*

*pursue competitive advantage*. Finally, we identify *patterns and drivers of transitions between quadrants of the typology* [50]. *3.1. Case Selection*  We confined our case selection to organizations that distribute, or plan to distribute, products in the US and sought to identify organizations of different sizes, those that operate across multiple supply chain stages, as well as those firms that concentrate within a particular level of the supply chain. To elaborate on and evaluate the typology shown in Figure 2 in context, we are interested in a diversity of supply and demand structures across FSCs [18,29,51]. To ensure that the sample includes firms across the typology quadrants, we specifically included cases that are pursuing technological innovations within the food industry, as well as firms that promote their operations as existing within the framework of alternative methods of agricultural production to reflect the diversity of supply characteristics [34]. We also included organizations that offer products that are We confined our case selection to organizations that distribute, or plan to distribute, products in the US and sought to identify organizations of different sizes, those that operate across multiple supply chain stages, as well as those firms that concentrate within a particular level of the supply chain. To elaborate on and evaluate the typology shown in Figure 2 in context, we are interested in a diversity of supply and demand structures across FSCs [18,29,51]. To ensure that the sample includes firms across the typology quadrants, we specifically included cases that are pursuing technological innovations within the food industry, as well as firms that promote their operations as existing within the framework of alternative methods of agricultural production to reflect the diversity of supply characteristics [34]. We also included organizations that offer products that are more generic as well as those that offer a breadth of product variety that encompasses generic as well as more differentiated items to reflect variation in demand characteristics. For example, by including retailers of various sizes, we capture retail and distribution networks, as well as firms that offer products under their own brand (i.e., private label), and in some cases, own and operate manufacturing facilities. In order to explore the complexity of FSCs, we also included a number of cases that play a role in non-profit distribution of food, including food banks that act as aggregators and provide warehousing, and food pantries that distribute food directly to clients.

more generic as well as those that offer a breadth of product variety that encompasses generic as well as more differentiated items to reflect variation in demand characteristics. Table 2 describes the sample, including the product categories, the stage or stages of the FSC in which the firm operates, and the extent of downstream supply chain reach of the organization, as well as information about the firm size. FSC stages are categorized as producers, processors, distributors, retailers [53], food banks, and food pantries. We

define *producers* as agricultural operations that farm crops or raise animals for use as food. *Processors* include organizations that transform agricultural products into saleable items; such operations include washing, cleaning, and packaging, as well as a variety of processes that combine and transform ingredients. *Distributors* engage in the movement of products between production and points of sale. *Retailers* sell directly to consumers. *Food banks* include the approximately 200 organizations that operate within the Feeding America network of non-profit food distribution; their primary role is to aggregate and warehouse food for distribution through food pantries [54]. *Food pantries* include those organizations that operate to distribute groceries to clients, as well as feeding operations that provide meals to clients [54].


**Table 2.** Case study descriptions.


Sales & number of employees are approximate to protect the identity of the case firms.
