*3.4. Alternative Income and Safety Nets for Farmers*

Information on alternative sources of income and safety nets the farmers depended on during the 2020 minor season maize yield loss was solicited. Table 3 shows that the farmers relied on diverse economic activities to cushion the financial burden that arose from maize production losses. In Ejura, most of the farmers (79%) relied on the sale of animals such as goat, sheep, chicken, and cattle to earn money for household needs, while in Kasei and Anyinasu, the farmers (78 and 75%, respectively) notably engaged in non-farm activities, such as trading and the running of commercial transport. Further, in Kasei and Anyinasu, a cross section of the farmers reported that they depended on income from the sale of other crops, such as cassava and vegetables. However, there were a few of the farmers in the study communities (22% Anyinasu, 17% in Kasei and 16% in Ejura) who reported that they did nothing during the maize production failure.

In terms of social safety nets, the results show that most respondents (average of ~60%) indicated that they had none. For those who depended on safety nets, the prominent ones were support and remittances from family members and friends living in or outside the communities. Others depended on maize grains stored and income saved from the previous years. Dapilah, et al. [18] reported that diverse activities and social networks foster climate change adaptation in northern Ghana through the diversification of livelihood activities. In the present study, it was also found that family support and remittances played a valuable role in minimizing the adverse impacts of maize production failure on farmers and their households. The study also revealed that the initiatives of individual farmers and farm management practices, particularly livestock rearing, the storage of maize grains, and income from the previous years' harvest, equally played a crucial role in reducing the negative impacts of the 2020 minor season crop failure on the farmers' livelihoods.

**Figure 4.** Frequency of dry spells for the (**a**) major and (**b**) minor cropping seasons for the period 2015–2020, and longest dry spell in days for (**c**) major and (**d**) minor cropping seasons for the period 2015–2020. A dry spell is defined as a sequence of four consecutive days or more during which precipitation is less than 1 mm. *3.4. Alternative Income and Safety Nets for Farmers*  **Figure 4.** Frequency of dry spells for the (**a**) major and (**b**) minor cropping seasons for the period 2015–2020, and longest dry spell in days for (**c**) major and (**d**) minor cropping seasons for the period 2015–2020. A dry spell is defined as a sequence of four consecutive days or more during which precipitation is less than 1 mm.

### Information on alternative sources of income and safety nets the farmers depended *3.5. Changes in Agronomic Practices in Response to the 2020 Maize Production Failure*

on during the 2020 minor season maize yield loss was solicited. Table 3 shows that the farmers relied on diverse economic activities to cushion the financial burden that arose from maize production losses. In Ejura, most of the farmers (79%) relied on the sale of animals such as goat, sheep, chicken, and cattle to earn money for household needs, while in Kasei and Anyinasu, the farmers (78 and 75%, respectively) notably engaged in nonfarm activities, such as trading and the running of commercial transport. Further, in Kasei and Anyinasu, a cross section of the farmers reported that they depended on income from the sale of other crops, such as cassava and vegetables. However, there were a few of the farmers in the study communities (22% Anyinasu, 17% in Kasei and 16% in Ejura) who reported that they did nothing during the maize production failure. The study sought information on how the experiences and lessons from the 2020 minor season maize production failure have shaped the farmers' agronomic practices. Table 4 showed that the experience from the 2020 minor season crop failure has indeed brought about some agronomic changes in maize cultivation. According to the farmers and the key informants, agronomic changes have become necessary to avert running into the same challenges experienced in 2020. Due to the difficulty for the farmers to master the onset and cessation of the minor season rain, of late, some of the farmers preferred doing early sowing of maize to take advantage of potential early rains. On the contrary, a cross section of the farmers preferred late sowing to make sure the rains are stable before planting (Table 4). However, both options are not without drawbacks because according to the Municipal Agriculture Extension Officer, in recent years, the minor season rains seemed to delay and last for a very short time when it comes. Either way it affects early and late sowing:

The minor season rain is increasingly becoming very difficult for farmers to predict its onset and cessation. This implies that opting for only early or late sowing increases the risk of maize failure. A viable way to go is we (Extension Officers) advise farmers to do split sowing of maize so that they do not put their eggs in one basket . . . to avoid total crop failure in case the rains did not come as expected (Key informant at Ejura).

As mentioned previously, besides climate change, fall armyworms were reported to have significantly contributed to the maize production failures. In response, the farmers (53%, 44% and 58% in Ejura, Kasei and Anyinasu, respectively) reported that they have increased the use of pesticides in a bid to control the pests. The interviews revealed that the farmers have been experimenting (trial and error) with different pesticides to control the pest. The farmers reported having used at least five different insecticides, such as Lambda Super 2.5, Diband and Samprifos, ashes, Lindane, etc., in the last year in an attempt to control the fall armyworm, yet no significant impacts have been observed. Adzawla and Alhassan [19] pointed out that farmers' adaptation to climate change is important at the local level, as it helps to enhance sustainable food production. The authors reported that maize farmers in Northern Ghana are adapting to climate change by practicing row planting, mixed cropping, intercropping, and changing planting dates. The results from the present study show that the farmers are using local knowledge and farming experience to adapt to climate change, particularly unpredictable rainfall during the minor season, and to control the fall armyworm. Furthermore, the farmers in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality are also tackling poor nutrient status and soil degradation by using fertilizers and practicing maize rotation with leguminous crops for soil nutrient replenishment, and this way improving soil quality for crop production.


**Table 3.** Alternative economic activities and safety nets of respondents (multiple responses).
