**5. Conclusions**

This study on water profitability analysis was conducted for the major crops in three governorates in Egypt. The analysis was conducted for the Sharkia, El-Beheira, and Kafr El-Sheikh governorates, situated in the Egyptian Nile Delta. The study shed light on the water profitability of different crops in the study areas based on field primary data collected from farmers in each of those governorates and verified these data through consultation workshops. This study approach has not been implemented in the Egyptian Delta before and thus reveals the actual water profitability of different crops produced by smallholder farmers. This study provides insights into the different difficulties farmers face that affect their land and water profitability and shows how these problems could be addressed to

improve food and climate security. The analysis showed the differences in water profitability among the three governorates even for the same crop and the contributing factors that affect it. Furthermore, the limiting factors for improving water profitability were identified, such as limited extension services, deteriorating water and soil quality, and inaccessibility of production inputs. Such an assessment can set the baseline for the water profitability of different crops and allow more climate-resilient cropping patterns to be planned accordingly as well as act as a guide for future policies. Monitoring the change of water profitability over time can deepen our understating of the factors that impact it along the production chain and highlight opportunities to improve it. Consequently, analyzing the water profitability of crops downstream the supply chain can paint a clearer picture of their contribution to GDP and national growth. Taking the analysis one step further and analyzing the number of family members benefiting from the generated profits could provide fresh insights into water profitability social distribution and the number of beneficiaries. Finally, we provided policy actions and recommendations for improving water profitability for farmers and future pathways for a deeper understanding of the water profitability of the farmers in the Nile Delta and how this knowledge could improve Egyptian food and climate security.

**Author Contributions:** The field research conceptualization, methodological design, and data collection was overseen and conducted by A.B., A.E., S.A.E.-H. and A.I. The data collected were analyzed by A.I. The initial figures and tables were generated by A.I. and A.B. and subsequently finalized by A.B. The paper was drafted by A.B. under the supervision of A.E., S.A.E.-H. and A.I., with final drafts generated by A.B. and finalized and edited by A.B. and A.E. Funding acquisition was carried out by A.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This project is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WEGP) and supported by CGIAR fund donors.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data supporting the conclusions of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors, with the exception of data that identify the personal information of the research participants.

**Acknowledgments:** This project is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WEGP) and supported by CGIAR fund donors. The research was conducted by a team of scientists based at the International Water Management Institute–IWMI and the Soil, Water and Environmental Research Institute–SWERI, Egypt.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
