**5. Discussion**

Even though Le Grenier boréal and Lufa Farms are very different experiences, particularly in terms of their scope, the quantity of food produced and, therefore, the number of consumers served, the two cases have certain points in common and show the importance of promoting agricultural production models that contribute to bringing the sites of production and consumption closer together. Proximity agriculture promotes an awareness of the issues involved in food production, issues that are invisible to the dominant model. These issues concern, in particular, the link between food production and the geographical characteristics of places. It implements a change of scale insofar as the large-scale industry

that dominates the global food system, driven by big capital, large companies and major distributors, is replaced by models implemented by small collective or socially oriented enterprises that make it possible for consumers to participate in production choices. This also serves to strengthen links with local communities. Our study of the two cases reveals the main analysis criteria, allowing for a better understanding of this model.

The two experiments operate on the periphery of the conventional agricultural system. On the one hand, the environments in which they are located (urban and northern environments) are not considered a priori as agricultural environments. While cities do have gardens and small developments producing some fruits and vegetables, Lufa Farms has launched a model that has no equal in Canada. This model could help reduce the dependence of large cities on the currently dominant extractivist food system. Le Grenier boréal, for its part, is located in a region that has had very little market garden production to date due to climatic and soil limitations. Its objective is also to reduce the double dependence of a remote region on extractivist production and on distribution centers located in large cities.

On the other hand, the areas they occupy—roofs in the case of Lufa, and, in the case of Le Grenier boréal, a boreal forest wasteland with soil that is very sandy and acidic and contains very little organic matter—are not known for their agronomic quality. However, the implementation of adapted and even innovative means of production has made it possible to overcome, at least partially, these limitations. Lufa Farms has opted for hydroponic greenhouse farming, which means that the company does not need land, and for a partnership approach with local agricultural producers while adopting an environmentally friendly distribution system (electric vehicles, for example).

Le Grenier boréal is also taking a partnership approach to productive ecology insofar as it fertilizes its gardens with residues from the fishing processing plant located in the municipality, thereby improving soil fertility. However, poor soil has remained a limiting factor for the cooperative, and in 2020, a portion of the fields was amended with green manure. While agricultural enterprises in the southern part of the province generally opt for manure spreading, this is not really an option for Le Grenier boréal, as there is no livestock in Côte-Nord. The manure would have to be trucked in over several hundred kilometers, which would be very expensive and would contribute to GHG emissions. To avoid this, other local resources such as branch residues and algae are also used [25]. In order to extend the season, Le Grenier Boréal has greenhouses and uses plastic tunnels. In addition, the cooperative makes a point of choosing its plant varieties so that they are well adapted to the northern climate [16]. The cooperative has also expressed an interest in collaborating with other crab and shellfish producers in the region and reusing their waste products, which would allow reducing the dependence on fertilizers from outside the region from an industrial ecology perspective.

In a context where the global food system is increasingly under pressure due to sudden crises and gradual but major transformations, such as those induced by climate change, there is a need to build more resilient food systems to ensure food security [63]. To do this, it is important to recognize and promote the diversity of production models [64]. Diversification improves the robustness of the system, in that it increases the chances that some links in the chain can take over if another link is weakened [65]. This diversification concerns production practices, the varieties used or the actors involved; yet, it also concerns, in our opinion, the sites and environments of production. Le Grenier boréal and Lufa are investing in sites and environments where agricultural production is little, if not very little, present, thus providing new possibilities for agricultural production.

Efforts must also be made to improve the food autonomy of territories [65]. This must, on the one hand, enable consumers to obtain supplies locally, as is the case for a part of the population of both the Les Grenier boréal and Lufa communities. On the other hand, the development of greater territorial autonomy must allow businesses to obtain the inputs they need locally (which is what Lufa is able to do to a large extent, and what Le Grenier boréal seeks to achieve by valorizing local resources).

Thus, in recent years, the development of agricultural initiatives of various sizes, both individual and collective, has led to the removal of local regulatory barriers that prohibited food production in some areas (in some Quebec municipalities, front yard gardens have recently been permitted; in others, greenhouses are now permitted in industrial zones). In addition, in 2021, the Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l'Alimentation du Québec (MAPAQ, Quebec, QC, Canada) launched a program to support the implementation of local food community development plans. These plans seek to promote "greater food autonomy and better resilience in the face of numerous challenges, including climate change" [66]. All this shows a progressive change in the understanding of the relationship between citizens and food production and testifies to the transformation of certain public policies.

Thus, while the cases studied have interesting impacts, although limited for the moment, in terms of both the food diversification and food autonomy of territories, they contribute to improving the resilience of the system, and, above all, they show possibilities. In this sense, they are beacons in their respective contexts and inspire other initiatives and projects implemented by local communities in their wake.
