*2.2. Climate*

Precipitation and temperature are very heterogeneous in the KRB due to its large range in elevation. Based on the Köppen–Geiger climate classification scheme, the KRB is mainly characterized by a mid-latitude steppe climate (Bsk, cold semi-arid climate) with some areas being Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate (Dsc) [25]. Figure 3 presents the mean monthly weather average of the recent decade (2009–2019) mean monthly weather average, recorded in North Salang and Kunduz stations. The data were provided by the Afghanistan Meteorological Department [26]. The mean annual temperature in North Salang (3400 m a.s.l.) is around 1 ◦C and it is 19 ◦C in Kunduz (991 m a.s.l.). The mean annual rainfall is recorded 71 mm in North Salang and 32 mm in Kunduz. From June to September are mainly dry months with very little precipitation and most of the annual precipitation falls from January to April. At North Salang, the annual average precipitation is around 200 mm and 100 mm at the Kunduz station. July is the warmest month of the year, in North Salang the average temperature in July is 11 ◦C and, in Kunduz, it is 33 ◦C. January is the coldest month of the year, with −10 ◦C and 5 ◦C in North Salang and Kunduz, respectively. In Kunduz, the temperature extremes can rise to over 40 ◦C during the warmest months and fall to −20 ◦C during the cold season. There are occasions of heavy precipitation events, for example, over 400 mm/d in North Salang (e.g., March of 2019) and 350 mm/d in Kunduz (e.g., February 2008). High precipitation during spring 2019 caused severe flash floods in the main river basins, including the Kunduz sub-river basin [27].

**Figure 3.** Average monthly precipitation and temperature recorded in North Salang and Kunduz stations during the period 2009–2019.
