*2.1. Description of the Study Areas*

Oromia National Regional State is one of the regions in Ethiopia most vulnerable to climate change and variability. This study covers three districts in Oromia region in central Ethiopia (Kembibit, Kuyu, and Boset) dominantly representing, respectively, highland (H), midland (M), and lowland (L) areas (Figure 1). This agro-ecological classification is mainly based on altitudinal variations that have a strong impact on temperature and rainfall and consequently on agricultural land uses, mainly crop production. Highland, midland, and lowland cover altitudinal ranges of 2300–3200, 1500–2300, and 500–1500 m above sea level, respectively. Kembibit district covers the total area of about 928 km2. It lies between 9◦12 –9◦32 N latitude and 39◦04 –39◦33 E longitude. The agro-climatic zone of the district is mainly highland (temperate) with pocket areas found in mid-altitude (sub-tropical) areas. Kuyu district is located between 9◦35 –9◦49 N latitude and 38◦03 –38◦31 E longitude. Its total area is 994.7 km2. Owing to its altitudinal range, the district constitutes three agro-climatic zones (temperate, subtropical, and tropical areas) with a dominant sub-tropical climate. Boset district, which covers

a total area of 1514.1 km2, is found between 8◦25 –8◦50 N latitude and 39◦16 –39◦50' E longitude. Most parts of the area lie between altitudinal ranges of 1000–1500 m above sea level, with a dominantly tropical climate.

The three areas are characterized by a bimodal rainfall distribution with a short *belg* rainy season, and a long *kiremt* rainy season. About 85% of the population in these areas live in rural areas, with livelihoods being mainly dependent on crop and livestock production. Owing to differences in temperature and rainfall distribution, these three agro-ecological settings are also characterized by fairly distinct crop production patterns. Sorghum and teff are the dominant types of crops produced in the lowland areas. Maize (*Zea Mays*), sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*), *te*ff (*Tef eragrostis*), wheat (*Triticum*), and oil seeds are dominantly produced in the midland areas. In the highland areas, barley and pulses are extensively produced. Farmers follow subsistence means of living that most of the products are used for home consumption. There is a high risk of yield reduction or crop failure during years of adverse weather conditions, threatening their food security. Consequently, the problem of food insecurity is widespread, and a sizeable proportion of the population is supported by the Productive Safety Net Program and emergency food aid. The program is implemented by the government of Ethiopia with the support of development partners in areas prone to chronic food insecurity to help the poor build assets and improve their livelihoods and, eventually, become food self-sufficient and resilient to shocks. The problem of food insecurity in the three study areas is related to declining agricultural productivity induced by adverse weather conditions and other socio-economic problems, such as shortage of farmland, land degradation, and limited use of improved agricultural technologies. The vulnerability of these areas is further compounded by deforestation, population pressure, lack of alternative livelihood options, and poor rural infrastructure.

**Figure 1.** Geographical location and topography of the study areas.
