*2.1. Study Site: Myanmar Climate-Smart Villages*

The implementation of the CSV approach was enhanced and adapted by IIRR by presenting it as not only a research for development approach that focused on CSA, but as a broader community development intervention package. The tailored CSV approach of IIRR followed the principles of participatory action research (PAR) and communitybased adaptation, where community members are active participants in the process of understanding the challenges, finding and testing solutions and learning from doing.

The IIRR CSV approach in Myanmar follows a 3-step process that includes (1) understanding vulnerabilities and their drivers, (2) identifying and testing adaptation options and (3) social learning within the village and with other villages. For this process, IIRR developed a menu of "socio-technical" methods and tools to facilitate community processes along the 3-step process, consistent with the principles of PAR (Barbon et al. 2021). These socio-technical tools and methods include participatory climate vulnerability and risk assessments, community workshops to identify "no-regrets" options for climate change adaptation (vis a vis the experienced climate risks and vulnerabilities) as well as farmer field days and roving workshops to facilitate the cross-learning and cross-incubation of new ideas and new experiences of farmers working to adapt to climate change.

This study was undertaken across four climate-smart villages (CSVs) in Myanmar, each adopting a portfolio of climate-smart agriculture practices in the four agroecologies of the country. Table 1 provides an overview of the profile of the four Myanmar CSVs.


**Table 1.** Profile of the four climate-smart villages (CSVs) in Myanmar.

(Source: Barbon et al., 2021).

Table 1 highlights that the four CSVs span the major diversity of agroecologies and agriculture systems across Myanmar. For instance, the farming system in Chin State, a highland region of Myanmar, is significantly driven by household consumption, as expected considering their isolation. This differs from the farming systems of the delta and dry zones, where production is primarily driven by markets. Agricultural production in the CSV in Shan is intermediate, driven by both household use and market sale, as this village is close to trading centers. Each of these four CSVs also experiences climate change differently, which is a key driver of IIRR's approach based on the importance of localized climate change adaptation in agriculture that is systems-oriented, rather than crop- or commodity-oriented. In systems-oriented approaches, broader consideration is made of the impact of soil, water, climate variability and extension services, all of which interact to determine the outcome, quality and livelihood impact of agriculture production.

As local communities experience climate change risks and vulnerabilities differently, adaptation approaches will also differ between communities. This is where the value of community-based approaches is significant, particularly by ensuring that CSA practices are tailored to the unique contexts of the participating communities. Consistent with this principle, IIRR has promoted a "portfolio" or "basket of options" approach" to CSA adoption by rural communities. The portfolio approach involves communities in considering a list of CSA adaptation options tailored to each of their specific vulnerabilities and risks. This menu of options can include, e.g., technological options, such as promoting stress-tolerant varieties of primary crops, or new platforms for agriculture production, such as integrating and improving small livestock production and vegetable production in homesteads (the

patch of land around the household dwelling, which, in Southeast Asia, can sometimes comprise up to 200–400 square meters of land).

The portfolio of CSA practice options can also include practices such as the use of green manure to reduce the footprint of fertilizer use, integrating trees into the existing farming system to generate new sources of income, improving soil health and creating micro-climates around the farm to protect farms against strong winds during storms. The CSA practice portfolio approach also helps to ensure social inclusiveness (with the aim that no one member of the community is excluded) based on the identification of CSA options irrespective of the household context, e.g., for households with large land areas, households without farmland but with a homestead, women-headed households, households that are wealthier and households that are very poor.

In the process of developing the menu of CSA options, IIRR facilitators conducted consultations with farmers and other rural community researchers to produce portfolios of possible options as a response to their understanding of climate risks and vulnerabilities. The list of possible CSA options was further prioritized using the following criteria [33].


After each of the CSVs finalized their portfolio of options, IIRR provided a small grant facility (termed the CSV Adaptation Fund) to support the implementation and trials of the identified options. The implementation and trials were conducted for two annual production seasons during 2019 and 2020. Alongside the implementation of these CSA options in each of the CSVs, IIRR also supported capacity development and awareness building activities to maximize the potential of CSA to generate development outcomes. In relation to this, IIRR implemented community-based nutrition education activities.
