*3.4. Cross-Governorate Comparison*

From a socio-economic perspective, the results show that the majority of farmers are over 50 years old, as their percentage reached 61% in Sharkia Governorate, about 67% in El-Beheira Governorate, and about 73% in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate. Additionally, most farmers had received a formal education, as the percentage of educated people reached about 89.22% in Sharkia Governorate, about 66.96% in the El-Beheira Governorate, and about 51% in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate. The study also showed that agricultural incomes varied from one governorate to another, as the annual income from agriculture reached about 28,000 EGP per feddan in Sharkia Governorate, about EGP 13,000 per feddan in El-Beheira Governorate and about EGP 12,000 per feddan in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, and the majority of farmers had incomes other than agriculture.

It was found from the farmers' responses that the most important reason for the low productivity per feddan was the lack of fresh water in the water channels, which forces some farmers to supplement their irrigation needs with water from agricultural drainages such as in Kafr El-Sheikh or well water. Furthermore, across the three governorates, the lack of production requirements such as fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, and machinery needed for cultivation and harvesting operations at appropriate prices and times are increasing the costs and limiting productivity. Furthermore, low market prices are affecting the net returns per feddan and unit of water. In addition, low soil fertility and deteriorating water quality are all contributing to a reduction in productivity and yields.

Figure 5 depicts the water profitability of different crops in each of the three governorates. The highest overall profitable crop was dry peas, which were only found in Kafr El-Sheikh at nearly 18 EGP/m3, followed by watermelon pulp, broad bean, and onion. The least water-profitable crops were rice and maize. However, in El-Beheira wheat was more water profitable than in Sharkia and Kafr El-Sheikh. Furthermore, clover's water profitability value in Sharkia was nearly double that of Kafr El-Sheikh. Moreover, sugar beet in Kafr El-Sheikh was more water profitable compared to the other two governorates. Finally, water profitability was mostly higher for the same crops in Beheira and then Kafr El-Sheikh and lastly Sharkia. These results could be used to reflect on the suitability of the crops per governorate including land and water as well as the socio-economic data of the farmers and accessibility to the market.

**Figure 5.** Cross-governorate water profitability comparison for 2020, source: field data collected from farmers and verified by workshops.

The collected data also point to the fact that experience had a great impact on increasing water and land productivity and determining the dates of harvest and the best harvesting technique. The level of education also affected production levels and the change of crops from one year to another. The high costs of production requirements had a significant impact on the profitability potential as many farmers did not have the cash flow required to cover the initial costs of the production of the more profitable crop.

The results show that the economic variables vary from one governorate to another, although the data of Sharkia Governorate show higher values than those of other governorates. Thus, the total costs for the same crop are higher in Sharkia compared to El-Beheira and Kafr El-Sheikh. This is one of the main reasons why the net return per feddan and water profitability are lower in Sharkia compared to the other two governorates. Moreover, in Sharkia Governorate the farm sizes are relatively smaller and more fragmented than the other two governorates. This makes the costs relatively higher and the net return per feddan significantly lower. Finally, for smaller farm sizes the options for profitable crops are limited, which compels farmers to select crops based on considerations other than per feddan net returns and profitability.
