**1. Introduction**

Many authors have studied disordered eating behaviors in individuals with overweight and obesity through the lens of addictions. Indeed, they found similarities between addictive behaviors and compulsive overeating, namely behavioural and neurobiological [1–4]. These similarities led to the concept of food addiction (FA) [5]. Although there is no universal definition of FA, it is known as an excessive and abnormal intake of highly palatable foods [2,3]. Since then, the study of FA has multiplied, using the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), an instrument that consists in an adaptation of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence, to food [2,6].

In order to deepen our understanding of the development of an addictive-like pattern of eating, it is necessary to target potential risk factors of this condition. A current hypothesis on the development of obesity suggests that deficits in executive functioning could contribute to problematic eating behaviors, attitudes towards food, and weight gain [7]. Similarly, deficits in executive functioning are considered as a central component in the development of addictive behaviors [8]. Executive function is an

umbrella term including a series of cognitive processes needed to adapt to new situations, allowing to behave appropriately to the context and to produce future-oriented behaviors [9,10]. It includes central functions, like inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, which underlie many higher-order functions (e.g., reasoning, problem solving, and planning) [11,12]. Recently, a few studies have focused on the cognitive factors that could be involved in FA, mainly executive functions.

Up until now, some authors examined the cognitive factors underlying FA in adults, using neuropsychological tasks and questionnaires. In order to do so, they all compared groups of individuals endorsing higher levels of FA symptoms to individuals who endorsed fewer or none. Overall, studies conducted within adults from the general population revealed that individuals with more FA symptoms, showed faster reaction times in response to food cues among neutral pictures [13], as well as attentional biases to unhealthy food cues following a sad mood induction [14]; a poorer performance monitoring, and more difficulties to detect and process errors during the task [15]. Only one study failed to find differences between groups, on a specific task assessing inhibitory control [16]. Regarding studies in adults suffering from obesity, they essentially showed that FA symptoms were accompanied with a poorer performance on decision-making, significant deficits in sustained attention [17]; and more difficulties to detect and process errors, as well as more self-reported metacognitive difficulties [18]. Nevertheless, a very recent study failed to show specific neuropsychological impairments or difficulties in participants with FA [19]. Taken together, most of the previous studies tend to reveal that cognitive difficulties could be associated to FA symptoms. Thus, it is possible to think that these cognitive difficulties could represent risk factors and contribute to the development of FA.

Adolescence is also considered as a high-risk period to develop addictive-like behaviors, regarding the combination between less efficient emotional regulation processes and the immature impulse control, that characterize it [20]. A range of studies aimed to assess the prevalence of FA in adolescents, resulting in rates of 2 to 16% in the general population [21–25]; almost 17% in psychiatric inpatients and 10 to 38% in adolescents with overweight or obesity engaged in a weight-loss program [26–28]. These rates were similar to those observed in studies with adults [29]. Since then, a growing body of literature on the study of FA in adolescents has been observed, offering a broader understanding of this condition. For example, FA symptoms have already been found as highly correlated with more disrupted eating behaviors, as well as more impulsivity, depressive and anxiety symptoms in this population [21,22,25,26,30,31].

A recent large-scale study in adolescents aged from 12 to 18 years also showed that those with more FA symptoms also reported significantly more executive functioning difficulties on a self-reported scale (BRIEF). More precisely, they reported significantly more difficulties on both indexes, assessing behavioural regulation (inhibition, shifting, emotional control, monitoring) and metacognitive (working memory, planning/organize, organization of materials, and task completion) difficulties. It indicates that they reported more self-regulatory weakness in their everyday life, in comparison to adolescents with lower levels of FA symptoms [31]. So far, only one study has included neuropsychological tasks to assess executive functions in adolescents, according to FA symptoms. Hardee and her colleagues examined the relationships between FA symptoms and cerebral activity during an inhibitory task (Go/No-go), in a sample of adolescents [32]. Their results showed that, in participants with a higher level of FA symptoms, a hypoactivation in some brain areas was observed during the inhibitory phase of the task. They suggested that it could be associated to a poorer inhibitory control. However, no significant difference was observed when they were compared on their performances at the task. More studies are needed according to FA and cognitive functioning in adolescents, in order to identify if cognitive mechanisms are involved in addictive-like eating.

The main aim of the present study was to examine cognitive factors associated to FA symptoms in adolescents. More precisely, the objective was to assess sustained attention, as well as executive functions with neuropsychological tasks, in adolescents with a significant level of FA symptoms (two symptoms and more), and to compare them with a control group. Since very few studies have examined cognitive factors related to FA symptoms in adolescents, no formal hypothesis will be proposed.
