**3. Research Model and Hypothesis Development**

Based on the NAM, this study develops a research model from the perspective of responsibility and inconvenience to people's lives. It hypothesizes that the overuse of a DCTA can activate people's personal norms by promoting awareness of the consequences and ascription of responsibility, and ultimately, a willingness to consistently cooperate with the government to prevent COVID-19. Meanwhile, the inconvenience caused by the overuse of a DCTA may affect people's normative activation process. The resulting model is shown in Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** Research model.

The monitoring of individuals will improve self-consequence management [43]. Therefore, the higher the perception of monitoring, the easier it is to perceive the consequences [44]. A DCTA's tracking will make the users always feel monitored, while they will have to remind themselves to deal with possible consequences. For example, if individuals do not take precautions, they may be subject to prolonged isolation, more detailed epidemiological investigation, trajectory disclosure, and other mandatory measures if they become infected

or come into close contact with a suspected COVID-19 patient [8]. A study in the UK confirmed that users were extremely concerned about privacy disclosure and stigmatization when using DCTAs during the COVID-19 pandemic [18]. Therefore, the overuse of a DCTA will prompt individuals to carefully consider the consequences and increase their awareness of them. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
