3.2.2. Slope

The steepness and length of a region's topography greatly influence its discharge and flooding. The rapid velocity of precipitation runoff is caused by steep or high slopes. Low or flat slopes, on the other hand, are prone to waterlogging, which can lead to high infiltration. The slope map was created using FABDEM (DEM) data.

The geo-environmental parameters used in this study are presented Figure 3 below.

**Figure 3.** Ninegeo-environmental conditioning factors.

### 3.2.3. Land Use Land Cover

Land use/land cover plays a significant role in the operation of hydrological and geomorphological processes by directly or indirectly influencing processes such as evapotranspiration, infiltration, runoff generation, and sediment dynamics. The land use/land cover product with a 10 m spatial resolution is obtained from Sentinel-2 using the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform.

### 3.2.4. Soil Texture

Soil texture is generally recognized not only as a weighty controlling factor in the mechanism of infiltration and runoff generation but also as being effective forhazard occurrence. This layer was acquired from the NBSSLUP. The soil texture in the study area comprises loam and clay.

### 3.2.5. Topographic Wetness Index (TWI)

Moore and Grayson [15] and Grabs et al. [16] mention that TWI (Topographic wetness index) represents how the tendency of gravitational forces and the spatial distribution of wetness conditions move water down slope. This layer was generated using DEM. TWI is also important in the regulation of surface runoff since the wetter an area is, the greater its runoff will be.

### 3.2.6. Distance from River Channel

The distance from the river was estimated in ArcGIS using the Euclidean Distance tool, which displays the distance from the river basin region to the natural drainage. In this context, natural drainage refers to all streams and rivers in the study region, which was categorized into five classes: 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m, and 2000 m.

### 3.2.7. Drainage Density

The primary influencing factor that contributes to the occurrence of numerous risks is drainage density. A higher surface runoff ratio results from a higher drainage density. To convert the drainage network pattern to a measurable quantity, the drainage density was determined using an extension of "line density" in ArcGIS 10.3 software.
